SYBCOM ACC & FINSYBAF Sem 4 Research Methodology-munotes

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1 MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
1
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction to Research
1.2. Types of Research
1.3. Summary
1.4. Questions
1.5. References
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit the student will be abl e to -
 Understand the concept of Research
 To understand the characteristics of Research
 Know the Importance of Research in Business
 Explain various Types of Research
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1MEANING
The word ‘Research’ is derived from the Middle French word ‘recherche’
meaning ‘to go about seeking .’ Research is a careful and detailed study
into a specific problem, concern, or issue using the scientific method.
Also, research is a systematic investigation to search for new facts in any
branch of knowledge. It helps to find solutions to certain problems and
arrive at new conclusions.
1.1.2 DEFINITION
According to The Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD), "Any creative systematic activity undertaken in
order to increase the stock of knowle dge, including knowledge of man,
culture and society, and the use of this knowledge to devise new
applications." munotes.in

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Resear ch Methodology
2 According to John W. Creswell , who states that "research is a process
of steps us ed to collect and analyse information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: pose a
question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the
question
William C. Emory defines “research is any orga nized inquiry designed
and carried out to provide information for solving a problem.”
Robert Ross defines “Research is essentially an investigation, a recording
and analysis of evidence for the purpose of gaining knowledge.”
1.1.3 FEATURES OF RESEARCH
1. Systematic Process: Research is a systematic process. No research
can be conducted haphazardly. Each step must follow other. There are set
of procedures that have been tested over a period of time and are thus
suitable to use in research: The steps are as fol lows:
 Formulating the research problem
 Review of Literature
 Define Research objectives
 Preparing Research Design
 Collection and analysis of data
 Interpretation of data
 Preparation of report
 Follow -up of report
2. Objective and Logical / Empirical: Researc her needs to make every
possible effort to avoid biasness in every stage of research process. In
order to make research objective and logical / empirical, there is a need to
collect relevant and accurate data to investigate into the research problem.
After collection of data, the researcher needs to undertake processing of
data, analyse, and interpret it and arrive at logical conclusion. So, the
research has to be conducted following rigorous scientific methods and
procedures. Each step in the research has been tested for accuracy.
3. Development of Principles and Theories: A systematic research helps
to develop new principles and theories. Such principles and theories can
be useful to several organizations to manage and deal with people and
things in a bett er way. E.g. Prof. Alfred Marshall used the inductive
method of research in economics. On the basis of the market analysis, he
framed ‘Law of Demand’. According to this law, there exists a negative
relationship between the price and quantity demanded. When price
increases, demand falls and vice versa. Another example could be, ‘14
Principles of Management by Henry Fayol’. They are developed gradually munotes.in

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Introduction to
Research
3 with thorough research work. Systematic observation and experiments are
conducted in various organizations b efore developing them.
4. Multipurpose Activity: Research is multipurpose activity. It helps to
achieve multiple purposes such as:
 Discover new facts or verify old facts.
 Predict future events and control such events
 Establishes relationship between variab les
 Develop new scientific tools, concepts, and theories
5. Basic and Applied Research: Basic or fundamental or pure
research is a research approach that is entirely theoretical and aimed at
improving or expanding the knowledge -base of a particular field o f study.
The main motivation in basic research is to expand man’s knowledge, not
to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the
discoveries that result from basic research. It does not have direct
commercial objective.
Applied r esearch is designed to solve practical problems of the modern
world, rather than acquire knowledge for knowledge sake. In other words,
the purpose of applied research is to know more about a certain real -world
problem and take steps to solve it. It has dir ect commercial objective.
Researchers in this field try to find immediate solutions to existing
problems facing a society or an industrial or business organization.
6. Quantitative and Qualitative Research: Quantitative research refers
to as a systematic i nvestigation of phenomena by gathering quantifiable
data and performing statistical techniques. E.g. Research is undertaken to
find out the number of unemployed graduates. This type of research is
usually done by using surveys, experiments, and so on.
Qualitative research is used to gain an understanding of human
behaviour, intentions, attitudes, experience, etc. It is based on the
observation and the interpretation of the people. E.g. Research is
undertaken to find out reasons as to why employees remain a bsent from
work.
7. Generalization: When the researcher conducts a research, he/she
selects target population and from this population, small sample is selected
for collecting data. So, the sample selection must be done systematically
so that it represents the whole population or the universe. The findings
with this sample are generalized on entire population/universe of research.
E.g. A research is undertaken on ‘Consumer behaviour towards electronic
goods of Samsung Company in Mumbai region’ among 500 sam ple size.
The findings of these 500 samples may be generalized for people residing
in entire Mumbai region.
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Resear ch Methodology
4 8. Reliability: It is a subjective term which cannot be measured precisely,
but today there are instruments which can estimate the reliability of a ny
research. Reliability is the extent to which the outcomes are consistent
when then experiment is repeated more than once. If research is
undertaken with similar population and with similar procedures, if it yields
similar results each time it is called to be a reliable research.E.g. A
research is conducted on ‘the effects of single parenting on the class
performance of the children’ and the results conclude that single parenting
causes low grades in class. These results should have to be reliable for
another sample taken from a similar population. More the results are
similar; more reliability is present in the research.
9. Validity: Validity of the research instrument can be defined as the
suitability / accuracy of the research instrument to the research problem.
Validity is the extent to which the instruments that are used in the
experiment measure exactly what you want them to measure. Some
researchers say that validity and reliability are co -related, but the validity
is much more important than reliab ility. Without validity, research goes in
the wrong direction.
1.1.4 IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN ACCOUNTING AND
FINANCE
1. Better decision -making: Accounting and finance research provides
critical information and insights that help organisations make better
decisions, particularly in financial matters.

2. Accurate financial reporting: Research contributes to better financial
reporting by identifying the most accurate and efficient methods of
measuring and disclosing financial data.

3. Fraud detection and preventio n: Research assists in identifying
patterns and trends that may indicate potential financial fraud, as well
as in developing better strategies for preventing and detecting
fraudulent activity.

4. Cost reduction: Organizations can use research to identify cos t-cutting
measures and implement strategies that lead to more efficient financial
operations.

5. Risk management: Research can provide insights into potential
financial risks and assist organisations in developing effective risk
management strategies.

6. Regul atory compliance: Research can provide insights into potential
financial risks and assist organisations in developing effective risk
management strategies.

7. Investor relations: Research can assist organisations in better
understanding the needs and expecta tions of their investors, resulting
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Introduction to
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5 8. Innovation: Accounting and finance research can drive innovation,
resulting in new and improved financial products, services, and
practises.

9. Improve d financial performance: Organizations can use research to
identify growth opportunities and improve their overall financial
performance.

10. Professional development: Accounting and finance professionals
benefit from research as part of their professional de velopment
because it keeps them up to date on industry trends and best practises.

1.1.5 NEED FOR RESEARCH IN ACCOUNTING AND FINANCE
There are several reasons why research in accounting and finance is
important:
1. Advancing knowledge: Accounting and finance research contributes to
the development of new theories and concepts that improve our
understanding of financial phenomena.

2. Identifying challenges: Accounting and finance research assists in
identifying challenges and risks such as financial fraud, regula tory
compliance, and financial risk management.

3. Informing policy decisions: Research provides policymakers with
evidence -based insights that enable them to make informed decisions
about financial regulation, market intervention, and economic policy.

4. Impr oving practice: Research contributes to better accounting and
finance practise by identifying best practises, improving financial
reporting standards, and enhancing financial professionals' skills and
knowledge.

5. Driving innovation: By identifying new tren ds and technologies that
can be applied to accounting and finance, research drives innovation,
resulting in the development of new financial products and services.

6. Enhancing financial stability: Research helps to maintain financial
stability by identifyin g risks and developing risk management tools
that aid in the prevention of financial crises and the promotion of
economic growth.

7. Promoting economic growth: Research contributes to economic
growth by identifying investment and innovation opportunities in the
financial sector.

8. Supporting sustainable development: Research in sustainable finance
contributes to the development of socially and environmentally munotes.in

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Resear ch Methodology
6 sustainable financial systems, thereby promoting long -term economic
growth and development.

Accounti ng and finance research is critical for advancing knowledge,
addressing challenges, informing policy, improving practise, and
driving innovation. It is critical in promoting financial stability,
boosting economic growth, and assisting in the development of long-
term financial systems.
1.1.6 BRANCHES OF ACCOUNTING AND FINANCE
The main branches of Accounting and Finance are:
1. Financial Accounting: This branch of accounting deals with the
preparation and presentation of financial statements to external users,
such as investors, creditors, and regulators.

2. Management Accounting: This branch of accounting deals with the
provision of financial information to internal users, such as managers,
to support decision -making processes.

3. Tax Accounting: This branch of acco unting deals with the preparation
of tax returns and the management of tax liabilities for individuals and
organizations.

4. Auditing: This branch of accounting deals with the examination of
financial statements and accounting records to provide assurance on
the accuracy and reliability of financial information.

5. Cost Accounting: This branch of accounting deals with the
determination and management of the cost of producing goods and
services.

6. Financial Management: This branch of finance deals with the
manage ment of financial resources within an organization, including
financial planning, capital budgeting, and the management of financial
risks.

7. Investment Management: This branch of finance deals with the
management of investment portfolios, including the sel ection of
securities and the management of investment risks.

8. Financial Markets: This branch of finance deals with the study of
financial markets and their impact on the economy, including topics
such as market efficiency, financial innovation, and the reg ulation of
financial markets.

9. International Finance: This branch of finance deals with the study of
international financial systems, including the behaviour of exchange
rates, international capital flows, and the impact of globalization on
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7 10. Behavioural Finance: This branch of finance deals with the study of
the behaviour of investors and how it affects financial decision -making
and market outcomes.

1.1.7 AREAS OF RESEARCH IN ACCOUNTING AND FINANCE
There are several different areas of res earch in accounting and finance
1. Financial Accounting: Financial accounting research focuses on
financial reporting, corporate governance, financial statement analysis,
and the impact of accounting standards on financial reporting.

2. Managerial Accounting: C ost management, performance measurement,
and organisational decision -making processes are all explored in
managerial accounting research.

3. Auditing: Auditing research investigates auditors' roles in financial
reporting, audit quality, and the impact of reg ulatory changes on
auditing practises.

4. Corporate Finance: Corporate finance the research can be done in
the topics like capital structure, investment decision -making, corporate
governance, and financial risk management.

5. Investments: Investment research f ocuses on asset pricing, portfolio
management, and behavioural finance.

6. Financial Markets: Financial market research investigates issues such
as market efficiency, market microstructure, and the impact of financial
regulation on market behaviour.

7. Interna tional Finance: International finance research looks at things like
exchange rate behaviour, cross -border investment, and the impact of
global financial crises on international markets.

8. Sustainability Accounting and Finance: The role of financial markets in
promoting sustainable development, the impact of climate change on
financial markets, and the adoption of sustainable investment practises
are all topics of study in sustainability accounting and finance research.

Overall, accounting and finance resear ch covers a broad range of topics
and is critical in shaping our understanding of the financial sector and
its impact on society.
1.2 TYPES OF RESEARCH
Basic Research : Basic or fundamental or pure researchis a research
approach that is entirely theoretical a nd aimed at improving or expanding
the knowledge -base of a particular field of study. The main motivation in
basic research is to expand man’s knowledge, not to create or invent munotes.in

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8 something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that
result from basic research. It does not have direct commercial objective.
E.g. “A study on socio -economic status of dwellers of Dharavi area,
Mumbai” OR “A study on impact of mobile phone on studies of secondary
school children.”
1. Applied Research: Applied resear chis designed to solve practical
problems of the modern world, rather than acquire knowledge for
knowledge sake. In other words, the purpose of applied research is to
know more about a certain real -world problem and take steps to solve it. It
has direct co mmercial objective. Researchers in this field try to find
immediate solutions to existing problems facing a society or an industrial
or business organization. E.g. “Investigating factors that improve worker's
productivity.” OR “A study on declining sales o f ABC soap.”
2. Descriptive Research: Descriptive research is a type of research that
provides an in -depth description of the situation, phenomenon, or
population under study. This research is also an appropriate option when
researcher does not have any info rmation about the research problem, and
primary information gathering is required to establish a hypothesis. The
descriptive research provides the answer to the “what” part of a research
and does not answer the questions “why.” Researcher has no control o ver
the variables and researcher has to report the actual conditions. For
example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing
trends among Mumbai buyers. They will conduct a demographic survey of
this region, gather population data, a nd then conduct descriptive research
on this demographic segment. The study will then uncover details on
“what is the purchasing pattern of Mumbai buyers,” but not cover any
investigative information about “why” the patterns exits. Because for the
apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature of
their market is the study’s objective.
3. Analytical Research: Analytical research is a critical evaluation based
on information that is available. The researcher makes use of facts or
infor mation already available and analyse these to make a critical
evaluation of the material. It is primarily concerned with testing
hypothesis. It specifies and interprets relationships by analyse the facts or
existing information. The analytical research pro vides the answer to the
“why” part of a research. It is usually concerns itself with cause -effect
relationships. E.g. Explaining why and how US trade balance move in a
particular way over time.
4. Conceptual Research: This research is a type of research that is
generally related to abstract idea (existing in thought or as an idea but not
having a physical or concrete existence) or concept. It does not involve
any practical experiment. This research is generally used by philosophers
and thinkers to develop ne w concepts or reinterpret existing ones.
6. Empirical Research: Empirical research relies on the observation and
experience with hardly any regard for theory and system. Such research is
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Introduction to
Research
9 through experiments or observation. For example: A research is being
conducted to find out if listening to happy music while working may
promote creativity? An experiment is conducted by using a music website
survey on a set of audience who are exposed to h appy music and another
set who are not listening to music at all, and the subjects are then
observed. The results derived from such a research will give empirical
evidence if it does promote creativity or not.
1.3 SUMMARY
This unit is about features of re search and how research holds significance
in business. It also comprises objectives of undertaking research and
different types of research. So this unit gives basic ideas about research
which helps to plan the research activity and achieve its objectives . So,
every researcher must know the features of research, its importance and
objectives as well as different types of research before he/she actually
starts with a research activity.
1.4 QUESTIONS
FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. ___________ is any organized inquiry de signed and carried out to
provide information for solving a problem
A) Sampling B) Research C) Hypothesis D) Research Design
2. The research should be ___________
A) Empirical B) Biased C) Subjective D) Inaccurate
____________ research refers to as a systema tic investigation of
phenomena by gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical
techniques
A) Qualitative B) Census C) Quantitative D) Historical
4. ___________ research is an appropriate option when researcher
does not have any information about th e research problem
A) Analytical B) Descriptive C) Conceptual D) Basic
5. Research in business facilitates ____________
A) Design ineffective marketing strategy
B) Design various schemes for upliftment of backward regions
C) Availability of incompetent manpower
D) Forecast changes in business environment
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10 TRUE OR FALSE
1. Research can be conducted haphazardly. FALSE
2. Research helps to measure business progress. TRUE
3. Applied research has direct commercial objective. FALSE
4. Analytical research is a critical evaluation based on information that is
available. TRUE
5. In research, reliability is the extent to which the outcomes are
consistent when then experiment is repeated more than once. TRUE
MATCH THE PAIRS
Group A Group B
1. Basic Research a. Achieve organizationa l goals
2. Empirical Research b. Gathering quantifiable data
3. Quantitative Research c. Risarch
4. Objective of Research in Business d. Recherche
5. The word ‘Research’ is derived
from French word e. Relies on the observation and
experience
f. Also known as pure or
fundament al research
(1 – f, 2 – e, 3 – b, 4 – a, 5 – d)
ANSWER IN BRIEF
1. Define Research. Explain its features
2. “Research is important in Accounting and Finance.” Explain.
3. Discuss the need for research in accounting and finance.
4. Write a note on:
 Basic Research
 Applied Research
 Descriptive Research
 Analytical Research
 Empirical Research
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11 1.5 REFERENCES
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki /Research#:~:text=The%20word%20resea
rch%20is%20derived,the%20term%20was%20in%201577.
 https://readingcraze.com/index.php/characteristics -research -2/
 https://www.slideshare.net/darious91/importances -of-research -in-
business
 https://research -methodology.net/descriptive -research/
 https://www.marketing91.com/descriptive -research/
 https://www.ukessays.com /essays/economics/descriptive -research -vs-
analytical -research -economics -essay.php
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UqtckUep840

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12 2
PLANNING OF RESEARCH
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Formulation of Research Problem
2.3 Review of Literature
2.4 Summary
2.5Questions
2.6 References
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit the student will be able to -
 Describe form ulation of Research Problem
 Discuss significance of Review of Literature
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Understanding the research process is an important step towards executing
a thorough research or study. Let us examine the different phases in
research planning as we ll as the stages involved in a research process.
2.2 FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
2.2.1 Meaning
Identification and formulation of a research problem is the first step of the
research process. It is the most challenging and difficult phase of the
resea rch process.
A research problem is a question that a researcher wants to answer or a
problem that a researcher wants to solve. In other words, research problem
is an issues or a concern that an investigator / researcher presents and
justifies in a researc h study.
A research problem is the most important aspect of the research.
Researcher must spend time to refine and assess the research problem
before getting started with the research activities. A research question
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13 Example
Incorrect Research Problem: What are the effects of social media on
people?
Correct Research Problem: What effect does using Facebook everyday
have on teenagers?
In the above example, the first question is not specific enough to capture
accurate feedback. Nobody knows what social media researcher is talking
about and what ‘people’ (target population) researcher is referring to.
2.2.2 Steps to Formulate of Research Problem
1. Identify the broad research area: The researcher begins research
by identifying a broad research area based on his/her interest, specialty,
profession, expertise, and knowledge. For example, a researcher studying
about Business Management can select areas like Marketing Management,
Human Resource Management, Organization al Management, and
Financial Management. These are the broader areas that can be further
subdivided into various research topics to figure out marketing strategies.
2. Divide the broad area into sub -areas: After the researcher chooses
a broad area to study, h e/she need to narrow down to a specific topic that
is manageable and researchable. To do this, break down the broad area
into sub -areas and choose a specific topic. For example, if your broad area
is Marketing Management it can be further divided into the following
subcategories:
 Consumer Satisfaction
 Marketing Mix
 Consumer Relationship
 Digital Marketing
3. Choose a sub -area: It is not possible to study all the sub -areas due
to time and money constraints. Thus, the researcher needs to choose one
sub-area of in terest and one that is manageable and feasible for him/her.
The area selected must have some research significance and must be
significant to the researcher’s research knowledge. Eg. A researcher
selects a sub -area is ‘Consumer Satisfaction’.
4. Formulate res earch question/problem: After a specific sub -area is
chosen, researcher needs to formulate research question/problem that
deems important for the research study. Many question/problem may arise
but narrow down and choose the most important and impact ful
question/problem. E.g. “A study on Consumer Satisfaction from After -
Sales -Services provided by Samsung Company in Mumbai region”
5. Set research objectives: After research question/problem is framed,
researcher must draw a plan about the objectives of the rese arch that
he/she need to explore. The objectives of the research study help to munotes.in

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Research Methodology
14 identify the research question/problem. There is a difference between the
research question/problem and the research objective. The difference is the
way they are written. Resea rch question/problem generally consists of an
interrogative tone. On the other hand, the research objectives are aim -
oriented. They include terms like to examine, to investigate, to explore,
and to find out. Example of Research Objectives:
 To investigate f actors affecting consumer satisfaction from after -sales -
services provided by Samsung company
 To find out various problems faced by consumers while availing after -
sales -service of Samsung company
2.3 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.3.1 Meaning
The researcher must c onsult the available publications such as
books, journals, magazines, research reports and similar other publications
before starting his/her own research activity. ROL refers to extensive
review of literature relating to research problem which researcher intends
to undertake. Such ROL provides good insides into research problems and
get familiar with previous research studies undertaken.
2.3.2 Significance of Review of Literature (ROL)
1. Get background knowledge of research problem: A research
problem is a quest ion that a researcher wants to answer or a problem
that a researcher wants to solve. ROL helps researcher to get
background knowledge of Research Problem.
2. Helps to identify gaps in research: Research gap refers to the areas
which are not explored in the pa st researches. ROL enables the
researcher to identify the gap in research, conflicts in previous studies,
open questions left from another research. The researcher can make an
attempt to fill this gap by undertaken research activity.
3. Help to formulate rese arch hypotheses: Hypothesis is an assumption
made to explain certain fact or provide basis for further investigation.
It is tentative in nature and it may prove to be correct or incorrect. Past
studies or ROL helps researchers to frame hypothesis for his/h er
current studies. The researcher collects data which may prove or
disprove the hypothesis. Based on the result of hypothesis testing a
conclusion can be drawn.
4. Get familiar with methodology adopted by other researchers:
Research methodology is the speci fic procedures or techniques used to
identify, select, process, and analyze information/data about a research
problem. ROL enables researcher to get familiar with methodology
that is used by other researchers in their researches. Accordingly,
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15 population, sample size, method and technique of data collection and
analysis and so on.
5. Prepare research design: Research design is a logical and systematic
outline of research project prepared for directing , guiding and
controlling a research work. With the help of ROL, a researcher can
prepare his/her research design. Research design keeps research work
on right track and help to complete research in time.
6. Prepare sample design: A sample design is the frame work, or road
map, that serves as the basis for the selection of a survey sample. In
research, it is not possible to collect data from entire population/
universe due to constraints of time, money, and energy on the part of
researcher. So, researcher needs to select samples from
population/universe of research. Sample selected must be true
representative of the population/universe of research. ROL helps
researcher to prepare proper sample design.
7. Get familiar with data collection sources and data analysis
techniques: For the purpose of researcher primary or secondary or
both data can be used by a researcher. The primary data can be
collected by observation, survey, or experiment method. Secondary
data can be collected from library, internet, reports etc. Co llected data
needs to be analysed to draw conclusion out of it. Various statistical
tools can be used such as correlation, measures of central tendency and
so on for the purpose for data analysis. ROL facilitates to get familiar
with data collection source s and data analysis techniques used by other
researchers.
8. Understand findings of other researchers and their conclusions:
ROL helps researcher to understand findings of other researchers and
their conclusion. It can be basis for researcher’s own further re search
activity.
9. To compile bibliography: Bibliography is a list of sources used in our
research. The main purpose of a bibliography entry is to give credit to
authors whose work researcher has consulted in his/her research. ROL
helps researcher to refer bibliography of others researchers to find out
more about the topic by exploring into their research.
10. Understand the structure of research report: Research report is a
written document containing key aspects of research project. After the
research work is completed, the findings along with recommendations
are presented in the form of research report to the authority for the
purpose of further decision making. So ROL enables researcher to
understand the structure of research report.
2.4 SUMMARY
This unit ta lks about formulation of research problems, which is a first
step in research activity. Proper formulation of research problems enables
researchers to carry on research activities accurately and researchers munotes.in

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16 understand what kind of research data is required to collect and achieve
research objectives.
Next part of this unit Review of Literature. It refers to the previously done
research. This provides insight to the researcher and provides direction as
to how he can carry on his/her research activity.
2.5 QU ESTIONS
1. What is Review of Literature? Elucidate its significance.
2. Explain the Formulation of Research Problem.
2.6 REFERENCES
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UqtckUep840
 https://www.slideshare.net/maheswarijaikumar/a -research -problem
 https://www.questionpro.com/blog/research -problem/
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846748_FORMULATIN
G_AND_TESTING_HYPOTHESIS
 https://www.questi onpro.com/blog/non -probability -sampling/
 https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/sampling -methods/

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17 MODULE - II

3
RESEARCH DESIGN IN ACCOUNTING
AND FINANCE
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Hypothesis
3.3 Summary
3.4 Questions
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will understand,
1. The meaning, need and importance of researc h design
2. Different Types of research designs
3. Meaning of Hypothesis, its formulation and sources
4. Types of Hypothesis
3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN
3.1.1 Meaning
After deciding the basic aspects of research project such as formulating
research problem, objec tives of research, data requirement, sample design
etc. and before the commencement of work of research project, the
researcher has to prepare research design. Decisions relating to what,
where, when, how much, by what means concerning a research study
constitute a research design.
Research design is a logical and systematic outline of research project
prepared for directing, guiding and controlling a research work. It means
to prepare detailed plan and procedure for the conduct of the research
project. It acts as a broad outline of the research work and acts as a master
plan / blue print for the conduct of formal investigation. It is the basic plan
that guides researcher in the execution of research project undertaken.
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18 3.1.2 Elements of Research Design
1. Nature of the research and Objectives of study
2. Time period of research study
3. Universe and sample size of respondents
4. The location where the study would be conducted
5. The resources required to conduct the research
6. Type and source of research data required
7. Techniques of data collection and analysis
3.1.3 Need and Importance of Research Design
1. Provides Guidelines: Research design provides guidelines to the
researcher in respect of:
 Time period of research work
 Type and source of data to be collected
 Techniqu e of data collection and analysis
 Sampling design
Therefore, the researcher will be able to collect right data from the right
source at the right time. It also helps him to complete the research within
stipulated time.
2. Organizing Resources: Research design enables organizing of
resources required to carry on research activity. The resources required
are:
 Funds
 Equipment / instruments and materials
 Manpower
Availability of right amount of resources facilitates smooth conduct of
research activity. Research activity would be difficult to carry on without
availability of proper amount of resources.
3. Selection of Techniques of data collection and analysis: Research
design helps to select appropriate technique for data collection such as
 Survey or Interview
 Observation
 Experimentation
 Internet
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19 Research design also helps to select appropriate technique for data
analysis such as :
 Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median, Mode)
 Time Series (Simple Moving Average, Weighted Moving
Average)
 Correlation Techniques etc.
4. Collection of Relevant Data: The research design indicates :
 Area of research
 Universe/Population of research
 Sample Size etc.
Accordingly, researcher can select right area of research and target
audience. He can decide his universe/popul ation from which samples are
selected to collect the relevant data.
Objectives of Research: Research design specifies objectives of research.
Research design provides right direction to the researcher to carry on with
research activity. This in turn will help to attend the research objectives.
6. Monitoring of Expenditure: Research design includes allocation of
research budget for various research activities. There is proper control
over expenditure. Wastage of funds does not happen. The research is
success fully conducted with allocated funds.
7. Execution of Research Work: The research design indicates the
start time and completion time of research activity. Therefore, there is
timely execution of research work. If research design does not indicate the
time frame, there is every possibility of research work getting delayed and
objectives may not be achieved.
8. Motivation to Research staff: A systematic research design
motivates the staff to collect the right data from the right source. Also due
to timely comple tion of research activity, the research staff may be
rewarded with monetary and non -monetary incentives.
9. Improvement in Decision -Making: Research design enables
researcher to collect right data from right source. Right data enables to
take right decision. Wrong data may lead to misleading decision making.
3.2 HYPOTHESIS
3.2.1 Meaning
Hypothesis is an assumption made by the researcher to explain certain fact
or provide basis for further investigation. It states what the researcher
thinks the outcome of the study will be. The researcher makes hypothesis
and collects data that either support the hypothesis or do not support it. So munotes.in

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Research Methodology
20 the hypothesis may be proved to be correct or incorrect. Hypotheses are
essential to all research studies with the possible except ion of some
descriptive studies whose purpose is to answer certain specific questions.
Example - A manager may hypothesize that salespersons who show the
highest job satisfaction will be the most productive salespersons. Another
example, organizational r esearcher may believe that if workers’ attitudes
toward an organizational climate are changed in a positive direction, there
will be an increase in organizational effectiveness among these workers.
3.2.2 Definition
Webster’s Dictionary defines hypothesis as “ an unproved theory,
proposition, supposition etc. tentatively accepted to explain certain facts or
to provide a basis for further investigation, argument, etc.”
3.2.3 Formulation of Hypothesis
1. Identification of Research Problem and its causes: The res earcher
must identify the research problem which needs to be investigated.
Also he/she needs to identify cause of such problem. E.g. The research
problem could be “ Decline in Sales of Lux soap in Mumbai
Region”. The possible causes of such decline in sales could be:
 Poor quality of the products
 Higher price of the product
 Ineffective promotion -mix
 Faulty distribution network
2. Formulate the Hypotheses: The researcher may undertake extensive
Review of Literature (ROL) or discuss with expert or by his/her ow n
experience formulates the hypothesis. E.g. Hypotheses relating to the
above problem can be formulated as:
 Sales are declining on account of poor quality of the products
 Sales are declining on account of higher price of the product
 Sales are declining on account of ineffective promotion -mix
 Sales are declining on account of Faulty distribution network
3. Pilot Test the Hypotheses: The researcher may conduct pilot study to
test the hypothesis. Small sample respondents are selected and data is
collected from t hem to conduct the pilot study. All the hypotheses are put
to test. The pilot study may indicate the most probable cause of the
problem. This may help to select the best hypothesis for the purpose of
detailed investigation. Suppose the pilot study states t hat most probable
cause of problem is poor quality of the product.
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21 4. Select the Best Hypothesis: After selecting the best hypothesis on the
basis of pilot study, the researcher proceeds for investigation of the
problem and find out the validity of the hypot hesis. The researcher may
specify the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.
 Null Hypothesis: It states that there is no relationship between two or
more variables. A researcher hopes to reject or disprove the null
hypothesis. E.g. There is no relatio nship between poor quality of
product and decline in sales.
 Alternative Hypothesis: It states there is relationship between two or
more variables. E.g. There is relationship between poor quality of
product and decline in sales.
5. Conduct the Research: After formulating the final hypothesis, the
researcher proceeds to conduct the research. He/she may prepare research
design to conduct research in right direction. The researcher collects data
and analyse the same to draw conclusion. He may use T -test, Z -test, C hi-
Square, ANOVA, Correlation etc. tests for the purpose for testing
hypothesis.
6. Acceptance or Rejection of Hypothesis: After testing the
hypothesis, the researcher may rejectthe null hypothesis or the researcher
may fail to reject the null hypothesis. Ge nerally, when the researcher
rejects the null hypothesis, the researcher may accept the alternative
hypothesis. At times, the alternative hypothesis may also be rejected.
3.2.4 Sources of Hypothesis
1. Intuition or Hunch: A person may get ideas to develop hy pothesis
due to one’s own intuition or hunch. Ideas can strike like a flash. E.g.
The story of Laws of Gravitation propounded by Newton at the sight
of falling apple is the case of intuition.
2. Past Researches: Findings of the past researches done by others can
be used for framing the hypotheses. E.g. A researcher found in the past
researches that rise in rate of commission of salesman resulted in
increase in sales of the company. A researcher may use this finding to
formulate his research hypothesis as “Incr ease in rate of commission
of salesman leads to increase in sales.”
3. Consultations: The researcher can hold discussion with experts to
develop hypothesis. In academic research, the research students can
take help of a research guide who is expert in his/her own subject. In
applied (commercial) research, the researcher may take help of
marketing manager. In social research, the researcher may take help of
an NGO.
4. Observation: Hypothesis can be developed through own observation.
E.g. One can observe general pa ttern of buying behaviour in the
market, and develop a hypothesis such as “Educated customers prefer
braded items as compared to illiterate or less educated customers.” munotes.in

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Research Methodology
22 5. Continuity of Research: Some researches are carried on for several
numbers of years. Th e research may be divided into different phases.
At each phase the researcher may get different findings based on
which he/she develops hypothesis for next phase.
6. Culture: While formulating a hypothesis for a problem, culture should
be studied. If a resea rcher wants to study trends towards female
education in a particular area, for this purpose he/she needs to study
traditions, family system, Norms, Values, region and education system
of that area.
7. Theory: Logical deduction from the theory lead to new hypo thesis.
The hypothesis must be valid, if the theory holds true. E.g. The theory
on human relations in management states that effective human
relations help to improve productivity. On the basis of this theory, a
hypothesis can be developed that “Effective management -labour
relations facilitates higher productivity.”
8. Personal Experience: On the basis of personal experience, researcher
uses his mind and suggests hypothesis. E.g. A researcher experienced
poor services in the Government hospitals. He/she may de velops a
hypothesis “Poor quality of services results into less footfall in
Government Hospitals.”
3.2.5 Importance
1. Helps to explore unknown facts: The hypothesis provides the
researcher with the most efficient instrument for exploring
andexplaining the un known facts. It stimulates the researcher for
further research studies.
2. Enables to prepare research design: The hypothesis helps in
preparing research design. It may suggest research objectives, sample
design, data requirement, techniques of data collectio n, tests, and tools
to analyse data etc.
3. Identifies need for data: A Hypothesis specifies the need of data i.e.
whether research will require primary data or secondary data.
Hypothesis would enable to collect required data. Without hypothesis
much useless data may be collected and important data would be
omitted.
4. Identifies sources of data: A Hypothesis also specifies the source of
data i.e. survey, experiment, observation, library, reports, internet etc.
Therefore, the researcher would consider only the re levant source of
data, which in turn would speed up the research activity.
5. Development of theory and principles: Hypothesis also facilitates
development of theory and principles. E.g. The theory of consumer
behaviour which presupposes that no two consume rs think and behave
alike. Similarly, 14 Principles of Management by Henry Fayol, states munotes.in

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23 that practicing these principles in an organization, results into
increasing organizational efficiency.
6. Provides specific direction: When hypothesis is finalized a def inite
and specific direction is provided to the research work. It makes way
to the progress of investigation. In the absence of hypothesis it
becomes extremely difficult to focus on research problem.
7. Prevents blind research: Hypothesis lights up the path of research. It
distinguishes between scientific and unscientific inputs. It acts as a
guide. Accuracy and precision is possible through hypothesis.
Therefore, hypothesis prevents blind research.
8. Economical: Developing hypothesis in business research is
economical. It saves time, money and energy of a researcher because it
guides the researcher in the right direction. Hypothesis provides the
basis for proper data collection. Relevant and correct information
collected by a researcher through properly formula ted hypothesis
proves resource saving.
3.2.6 Types of Hypothesis
1. Simple Hypothesis: It reflects the relationship between one dependent
variables (DV) and one independent variable (IDV).
Examples:
 Higher the unemployment (IDV), higher would be the rate of
crime (DV) in society
 Lower the use of fertilizers (IDV), lower would be agricultural
productivity (DV).
 Higher the poverty (IDV) in the society, higher would be the rate
of crimes (DV).
2. Complex Hypothesis: It reflects the relationship between two or more
dependent variables and two or more independent variables.
Examples:
 Higher the poverty (IDV) leads to higher rate of illiteracy (DV) in
the society, higher would be the rate of crime (DV).
 Lower use of fertilizer (IDV) and modern equipments (IDV), lower
would be the agricultural productivity (DV)
3. Directional Hypothesis: A directional hypothesis is a prediction made
by a researcher regarding a positive or negative change, relationship, or
difference between two variables of a population. This prediction is
typically based on past research, accepted theory, extensive experience, or
literature on the topic. For example - “There will be a positive relationship
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24 4. Non-Directional Hypothesis: This form of hypothesis is used in
studies where there is no sufficient past research available on which
predication can be made about relation between variables. It does
not stipulate the direction of the relationship. It is a statement that a
relationship exists between two variables, without predicting the exact
nature (direction) of the relationship. E.g. “Teacher – student relationship
influence student’s learning.”
5. NullHypothesis: This is a hypothesis that proposes no relationship
or difference between two vari ables. It involves a statement that says
there is no relationship between two groups that the researcher compares
on a certain variable. It is denoted by “H 0”. Example –
 There is no relation between poverty and crime in a society.
 ‘There is no difference i n the academic performance of high school
students who participate in extracurricular activities and those who
do not participate in such activities’
6. Alternative Hypothesis: This hypothesis proposes a relationship
between two or more variables. Alternative hypothesis is denoted by “H 1”.
Example –
 There is relation between poverty and crime in a society.
 ‘There is difference in the academic performance of high school
students who participate in extracurricular activities and those who
do not participate in such activities’
7. Causal Hypothesis: Causal hypotheses propose a cause and effect
interaction between two or more variables. This hypothesis predicts the
effect of independent variable on the dependent variable. E.g. ‘High
school students who participat e in extracurricular activities spend less
time studying which leads to a low grades.’
8. Associative Hypothesis: These hypotheses aim to determine if
relationships exist between a set of variables. Do not indicate cause and
effect.
9. Testable Hypoth esis: These hypotheses predict relationship between
the independent variable and the dependent variable. These variables are
testable or measurable.
3.3 SUMMARY
Another part of this unit is about Research Design. Research design is a
plan of research. It e nables us to plan the various activities of research
such as sampling method, data collection and analysis method, resources
required etc. Research design enables us to start and end the research on
time. Delayed research may not hold any importance.
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Research Design in
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25 Hypo thesis is another part of this unit. It refers to the assumption made by
the researcher, which he/she tries to cross check after collecting the data. It
can be proved to be correct or incorrect. That the researcher can confirm
only after collecting data fr om the respondents.
3.4 QUESTIONS
1. Write a note on research design.
2. How to formulate research hypotheses?
3. Describe the different sources of generating hypotheses.
4. Highlight the importance of hypothesis in research.
5. Briefly explain types of h ypothesis.
















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26 MODULE III
4
DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Stages in Research Process
4.3 Primary Data
4.4 Methods of Collecting Primary Data
4.5 Summary
4.6 Questions
4.7 References
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit the learner will understand
1. Various Stages in Research Process
2. Primary data
3. Different sources of collecting Primary Data
4. Limitations of Primary Data
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Research refers to the systematic investigation into and study of ma terials
and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions. To
attain correct results Research has to be done with a predefined process. In
this unit we will learn What are different stages in Research Process, How
Primary Data is collected
4.2 STAGES IN RESEARCH PROCESS
4.2.1 MEANING
Each and every researcher needs to follow appropriate research process for
successful completion of his or her research project. A researcher who is
conducting scientific research needs to follow a systematic p rocess to
study the research problem and to arrive at a conclusion. The scientific munotes.in

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27 research process includes a sequence of various steps that needs to be
followed while undertaking the research project. Every research problem
is unique and it requires rese arch work to be carried out accordingly.
Following different steps to be followed in the research process.
I] Identifying and selection of research problem:
The most important step in the research process is to identify and select
research problem, it is often said a well defined problem is half solved.
High degree of intellectual work is needed to identify and define the
research problem. A properly defined research problem will help
researcher to collect reliable data to solve the research problem and in that
case, he will be in a better position to arrive at a suitable conclusion based
on Analysis of data.
Following are some of the Essentials of a good research problem
1. Researchable : the identified research problem can be studied through
collection a nd Analysis of data
2. Understandable : The research problem should be understandable it
should be well formulated and logically structured
3. Ethical : The selected research problem should not harm the researcher
respondents and Society. You should not create any embarrassment
every of the stakeholder in the world in research process
4. Purposeful : The research problem should be defined in such a way
that after concluding this study it should be able to solve the situation.
5. Manageable : the research problem sho uld be manageable the
researcher should take care that the problem should be within limits of
his skills resources and time.
II] Review of literature:
Review of literature refers to study of available knowledge in respect of
research problem. A researcher can study Various publications such as
journals books research reports other published matter particularly the
researcher should go to the similar research study that were conducted
previously. Literature review is important because it is the duty of resea rch
to find out what study has been already done literature review will help the
researcher to find out gaps in earlier study. On the basis of those gaps
researcher can formulate his Research Design Literature review on both
matic as well as methodological direction to the researcher.
III] Formulation of the hypothesis & Research Design
Once the researcher has clearly defined the research problem and has
made in -depth literature review he needs to formulate Research Design for
his study. The researcher als o need to formulate hypothesis for his
research.
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28 This is a tentative assumption made to test its logical and empirical
consequences. The hypothesis should be formulated on the basis of index
knowledge of the research problem. A well defined hypothesis wi ll clearly
identify the kind of data required by the researcher to conduct the study
which will help him to create a suitable Research Design.
Research Design is a systematic and logical plan prepared to conduct a
research study we can call it as a bluepri nt for research study. The
Research Design will include guidelines in respect of collection,
measurement and analysis of data required for the research study.
IV] Sampling Design :
A researcher needs to collect Information for his study however it is not
possible to collect information from each and every member of the
universe hence he needs to select sample for data collection. The research
needs to select an appropriate sampling method which is suitable for the
study. The selected sample must be represen tative of the universe. Its size
must be flexible and sufficient enough to provide required information
which can be analysed and used to test the hypothesis.
V] Designing Questionnaire :
The researcher needs to collect primary data for his study. He cann ot rely
only on secondary data. Primary data can be collected through various
sources however the most commonly used is Questionnaire. Questionnaire
is a list of questions that will be asked by research to the respondents for
Collection of data. While desi gning questionnaire researcher need to
consider various aspects such as what type of information is needed, what
type of technique will be used for conducting the research and he also
need to take care regarding proper wording and sequence of the
question s.
VI] Collection of data :
The researchers need to collect all relevant information in respect of his
research problem as per Research Design through various sources. He can
use primary data and secondary data for purpose of research. While
collecting da ta researcher need to consider that information collected is
up-to-date and free from any bias. The information must be complete in
all aspects and the information must be relevant to the research problem.
VII] Processing and analysing data :
The research er collects data from primary as well as secondary sources
however the data collected is in raw form and it needs to be processed for
further analysis.
Processing of data in hall editing, coding, classification, and tabulation of
data. Editing of data refe rs to removing unwanted and irrelevant
information it is necessary to check errors and omissions in data
collection. coding refers to assigning different codes to the collected data
which helps in further processing of the information classification of dat a munotes.in

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29 refers to grouping of data under different categories and tabulation of data
involves transferring all classified data into tabular form tabulation of data
helps in analysis and interpretation of data.
Once data is organised the researcher needs to analy se the data. Analysis
of data is very crucial as it tries to establish relationship between
information and research problem. Once that relationship is established
interpretation of data and finding out logical conclusions of study is
possible.
VII] Hypot hesis Testing :
Once analysis and interpretation of data is over the researcher must test
hypothesis. hypothesis testing is necessary because researcher need to
confirm whether the finding of the research supports the hypothesis or
provides a contrary pic ture. Researcher may apply various tests such as
Chi-square test, F -test, t -test for testing the hypothesis. Once hypothesis is
tested its result will either lead its acceptance or its rejection.
IX] Preparation of Research Report :
The researcher must pre pare a research report which includes all the
findings and conclusions of his study. The report can be divided into three
parts.
1. Preliminary Content. : This includes preface, table of contents and all
other related authorisations and declarations in respe ct of the Research
report.
2. Main body - This includes introduction, literature review, research
methodology, data analysis, conclusion and recommendations.
3. Appendix - this will include all the annexure bibliography and other
supportive documents related t o the research.
4.3 PRIMARY DATA
In statistical analysis, collection of data plays a significant part. The
method of collecting information is divided into two different sections,
namely primary data and secondary data. In this process, the primary data
is assembling data or information for the first time, whereas the secondary
data is the data that has already been gathered or collected by others.
4.3.1 Definition of Primary Data:
Primary data is the data that is collected for the first time through pers onal
experiences or evidence, particularly for research. It is also described as
raw data or first -hand information
4.3.2 Characteristics of Primary Data
Following is list of characteristics of Primary Data.
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30 2. Collection of prim ary data is an expensive exercise
3. Collection of primary data is a time consuming
4. Data Lake to be collected considering research problem
5. Primary data is collected from relevant respondents
6. There are several methods of collecting primary data such as
Surve y, Observation experimentation etc.
7. Primary data need to be processed and analysed before its use.
8. Primary data is considered to be basic input in research study.
4.4 METHODS OF COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA
Primary data is collected by researchers by interactin g with or observing
the respondents; it can be collected through various methods such as
survey, interview, observation and experimentation.
1. Survey
2. Interview
3. Observation
4. Experimentation
4.4.1. Survey Method :
The Survey method is the technique of gathering data by asking questions
to people who are thought to have desired information. This data is
comprehensive information gathered from a target audience about a
specific topic to conduct research. Survey can be a Census or Sample
Survey
Census : In case of C ensus Survey the entire universe is contacted for
collecting information.
Sample Survey : In case of sample survey information is collected from
selected respondents of the universe.
Methods of Survey:
The researcher can apply different methods of Survey ba sed on the
research problem, No of respondents from whom information to be
collected, time available to the researcher and his financial limitations.
Today technology available with the researcher and respondents also plays
a crucial role in selecting the survey method. Following are different
methods of survey.
1. Interview : In this method researcher meets respondents personally
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31 relevant information. Which is the most traditional, expensive and
most effective method of collecting data.
2. Telephonic Survey : In this method the researcher does not meet
respondents personally. However the survey is conducted through
telephonic discussions. The researcher asks various questions to the
respondents on telephone and collects the required information.
3. Mail Survey : This is another method of Survey it is generally used
when the number of respondents is very high and there is a
geographical challenge for a researcher. In this method a
questionnaire is prepared and sent to the respondents via mail or it can
be advertised in newspapers and magazines and respondents are asked
to fill in the information and send it back to the researcher.
4. Online Surveys : Now a days this method of collecting information is
gathering momentum today we have high penetration of internet
services in India particularly in urban and semi -urban areas, in this
method the researcher can collect information from respondents by
sending the Google Form or Microsoft from through email o r other
communication applications such as WhatsApp or Telegram.
Each and every method has its own Advantages and disadvantages.
Following are Advantages and disadvantages of Survey
4.4.2. Advantages of Survey Method
1. Reliable and Detailed Information : Information collected through
survey is more reliable. The researcher collects information from
respondents directly sold is assumed to be more reliable and correct
however accuracy of the information depends upon the type of
questions the survey method and t he respondents bias towards the
research problem
2. Versatile : This method is most versatile. A researcher can restructure
or modify the questions according to the responses he has received. He
can delete certain questions according to the situation, he may a sk
questions to the respondents in the different languages to obtain
responses from the respondents.
3. Personal touch : This method allows the researcher to create personal
relationship with respondents which help the researcher to obtain
candid responses fro m the respondents on the questions which
otherwise could have been avoided by the respondent.
4. Cost effective : This method is cost effective in terms of quality of
information obtained through this method.
4.4.3. Disadvantages of Survey Method.
1. Time cons uming : This method is time consuming, a lot of time is
needed to prepare a questionnaire, to take appointment of the
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32 2. Personal Bias : The quality of information obtained from this
particular method can be affected due to personal bias of interviewer
as well as respondent. The respondent may not provide correct
information while answering the questions and at the same time
interviewer / researcher may bypass or twist the questions which
prohibit respondents from pr oviding the correct information.
3. Expensive : Survey method is expensive and it is difficult for a
researcher with limited financial strength.
4.4.4. Interview Method :
In the case of an interview the researcher or interviewer interacts with
respondents pers onally by meeting the respondent. In this method there is
face-to-face interaction between researcher and the respondent. It is also
called a Personal Interview. In this method the interviewer asks questions
to the respondent and collects information throu gh its answer given by the
respondent. There are various types of personal interviews.
1. Structured Interview - In this type of interview the interviewer uses a
set of predetermined questions and highly standardized techniques of
recording.
2. Unstructured Int erview - In this method interviewer does not follow
a system of predetermined questions and standardized techniques of
recording information and it is fully based on flexibility and
requirements.
3. Clinical Interview - This type of interview is concerned wit h broad
underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of an
individual’s life experience.
4. Non-directive Interview - In this type the interviewer simply to
encourage the respondent to talk about the topic with a bare minimum
of direct questioning.
5. Focused Interview - In this type of interview the task of the
interviewer is to confine the respondent to discuss about given
experience to them and its effects.
Nowadays such interviews can be taken through video conferencing
platforms such as Zoom, Goog le Meet or Microsoft Teams.
4.4.5. Advantages of Interview
 Higher response rate.
 When the interviewees and respondents are face -to-face, there is a way
to adapt the questions if this is not understood.
 More complete answers can be obtained if there is doub t on both sides
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33  The researcher has an opportunity to detect and analyze the
interviewee’s body language at the time of asking the questions and
taking notes about it.
4.4.6. Disadvantages of Inter view
 They are time -consuming and extremely expensive.
 They can generate distrust on the part of the interviewee, since they
may be self -conscious and not answer truthfully.
 Contacting the interviewees can be a real headache, either scheduling
an appointmen t in workplaces or going from house to house and not
finding anyone.
4.4.7 Observation Method :
This is another method of collecting data, in this method the researcher
does not Ask any question to the respondent but observes the behaviour of
respondents. The observation Method can be defined as “Observation is a
technique that involves systematically selecting, watching, listening,
reading, touching, and recording behavior and characteristics of living
beings, objects, or phenomena.”
4.4.8. Advantages of Observation Method
1. No Respondent Bias : There is no any respondent bias involved in
collecting data. in this method behaviour of respondents is observed
and respondents may not be aware that they are being observed hence
they behave naturally without any bias.
2. Accurate and Reliable : The information collected through this
method is accurate and reliable as it is collected without any bias and it
is collected at the point of action or reaction of the respondent.
4.4.9. Disadvantages of Observation Method
1. Time Consuming : It is time consuming method for collection of data,
researchers need to observe behaviour of all respondents patiently.
2. Expensive : It is an expensive method of Data Collection as a
researcher may have to appoint trained staff for observing b ehaviour of
respondents.
3. Non Verbal Method : It is a nonverbal method of Data Collection, in
depth collection of information like interview method is not possible
through this method.
4.4.10. ExperimentationMethod :
Experimentation method of data colle ction is normally followed in the
field of science. In this method research study cause and effect
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34 An experiment is a structured study where the researchers attempt to
understand the causes, e ffects, and processes involved in a particular
process. This data collection method is usually controlled by the
researcher, who determines which subject is used, how they are grouped
and the treatment they receive.
4.4.11. Advantages of Experimentation Method
1. Researcher have full control on the experiment
2. Researchers can obtain reliable and accurate information through
experiments.
3. It eliminates any kind of bias in Collection of data.
4.4.12. Disadvantages of Experimentation Method
1. Expensive method of Data Collection
2. It could be time consuming
3. Small error could result into failure of experiment
4.4.13. Schedules
The researcher may use a schedule while collecting data from interview or
observat ion. Schedule is an instrument used to collect data from the
respondents Schedule contains questions, statements (on which
respondents are expected to give their opinion) It provides blank
spaces/tables to the respondents to fill up their responses. Schedu le is
important as it help researcher to attain objectivity by reminding him
different aspects to be observed.
The features of schedules are :
1. The schedule is presented by the interviewer.
2. The questions are asked and the answers are noted down by him.
3. The list of questions is a more formal document, it need not be
attractive.
4. The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research.
There are several kinds of schedule.
1. Rating Schedules : It is a schedule which contains positive and
negative sta tements of opinion on the phenomenon. The respondents
are to express their opinions, preferences etc, respondents over
statements on the phenomenon studied and schedule is used to record
their responses.
2. Documents Schedules : are used to collect data/infor mation from
recorded evidences and/or case histories. Here the blanks, functional munotes.in

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Data Collection and
Processing
35 issues related blanks and the like to be filled up from records and
documents are present.
3. Survey Schedules : Survey schedules are like questionnaires, it is a
list of questi ons that need to be answered by respondents.
4. Observation Schedules : Observation schedules are schedules used
when the observational method of data collection is used.
4.4.14. LIMITATIONS OF PRIMARY DATA
1. Expensive : Primary data collection methods are expensive
comparing it to secondary data. It requires appointment and training
of staff for collecting information through Interviews, surveys or
observation. It also requires sophisticated equipments for conducting
experiments. However such expenses are not required when secondary
data is used by researcher.
2. Time consuming : Collecting data through primary sources could be
time-consuming as it requires time to collect information from each
and every respondent, observe the sample as well as experiments.
3. Bias :Reliability and accuracy of primary data could be affected due to
bias of researcher or respondent. Respondents may provide fake
information to the researcher regarding sensitive topics. Interviewer /
researcher may also not take sufficient efforts to collect information
from the respondents.
4. Processing of data : the information collected from respondent need
to be edited, coded, classified and tabulated before its analysis only
after properly analysing the data useful inferences can be drawn.
5. Sampl ing Error : While collecting information it may not be possible
to collect information from all the respondents of the Universe.
Researcher may have to collect information from sample i.e. selected
respondents from the entire population, sample selection c ould be
wrong which may lead to collection of wrong information and wrong
conclusions from the research.
4.5. SUMMARY
This module has discussed the Research Process thoroughly, the unit also
discusses Primary Data its Features Advantages and Disadvantages . It also
discusses various methods of collecting primary data thoroughly. The unit
has also provided Limitations of Primary Data. However a researcher may
not rely only on Primary Data, he may have to use secondary data as well.
It is discussed in the nex t unit


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36 4.6 EXERCISE
1. Describe Stages in Research Process.
2. Explain Importance of Primary Data.
3. Explain methods of collecting primary data.
4. Explain limitations of primary data.
5. Write Short Notes on:
a. Interview
b. Schedule
c. Observation Method
d. Experimentation Met hod
e. Survey Method
State following statements are True or False
1. The research problem should be clearly defined
2. Literature review to provide good insight into research problem
3. Tabulation of data helps in analysis and interpretation of data
4. Collecting Primar y data is inexpensive
5. There are no disadvantages of experimentation
(True - 1,2,3, False - 4,5)
4.7 REFERENCES
 Research Methodology : MichaleVaz, Aurora Vaz : Manan Prakashan
 Research Methodology Methods and Techniques : C. R. Kothari, New
Age Internatio nal Publishers
 Research Methodology : R Panneerselvam, PHL L:earning

❖❖❖❖

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37 5
SECONDARY DATA
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Secondary Data
5.3 Methods / Sources of Secondary Data
5.4 Factors Influencing Choice of Method of Data Collection
5.5 Sampling
5.6 Summary
5.7 Questions
5.8 References
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit the learner will understand
1. What is Secondary Data ?
2. What are different methods of collecting Secondary Data ?
3. What are limitations of collecting secondary data ?
4. Factors influencing selecting methods of collecting data
5. Significance and methods of sampling
6. Factors determining sample size
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In earlier unit we learned about primary data. However the researcher also
needs to look into Secondary Data. The researcher should go through all
published m aterial regarding his area of study, that published material
such as Journal, Magazines, Research Papers, Websites, books etc. is
called Secondary data. Based on available secondary data the researcher
will identify the area in which he can conduct researc h and collect
necessary primary data.

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38 5.2 SECONDARY DATA
This data is readily available for researchers. It is available from published
sources such as newspaper, magazines, research journals, research papers
etc. Generally any researcher makes an attemp t to obtain information
through secondary data and if secondary data is insufficient or redundant
the researcher will try to obtain primary data.
5.2.1 Features of Secondary Data
1. Readily available data : Secondary data is collected from published
as well a s unpublished sources. Secondary data is available internally
(from own records, accounts etc) or externally. It is already collected,
processed and published by other researcher.
2. Quickly collectible : Secondary data is readily available hence it is
easy to collect. The researcher can easily collect secondary data as
compared to primary data.
3. Less time consuming and Less Expensive : Secondary data is easy to
collect as it is readily available hence it can be collected in less time. It
is also less expensive t o coolest secondary data.
4. Comprehensive : Secondary data provide quantitative data.
Information available through secondary data is huge. Secondary data
is available for almost all subjects.
5. Relevance : Secondary data is available for almost all subjects.
However the secondary data available may not be related with the
research topic hence the researcher need to evaluate the available
secondary data.
5.2.2 Advantages of Secondary Data
Followings are advantages of Secondary Data.
1. Less Processing of Data : Secondary data is already processed earlier
hence it requires less processing of data. It becomes easy for
researcher to use secondary data for his research.
2. Cost Effective : Collecting secondary data is cost effective. The
secondary data is available to resea rcher through internal or secondary
sources. The researcher does not require to appoint and trained staff to
collect data or make any conduct survey or experiments.
3. Complimentary to Primary Data : The Secondary data is
information collected and processed b y other researcher for some other
issue hence it may not be hundred percent relevant for the research
problem of the researcher. In such scenario Secondary Data can be
used to support the primary data collected by the researcher.
4. Less Time Consuming : The s econdary data is readily available to the
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Secondary Data

39 collection of secondary data is quick and less time consuming for the
researcher.
5. No Sampling errors : The secondary data is readily available to the
researcher trough various internal and external sources. There is no
any requirement of sampling for collecting of secondary data hence
there is no any issue of sampling error in Secondary Data.
5.2.3 Limitations of Secondary Data
1. Unsuitable : Secondary data may not be suitable for all types of
research. Secondary data is not useful in case of commercial research.
In case data is required to solve a business problem for example
customer satisfaction. In such case Secondary Data is not suitable
researcher need to collect primary data to solve this problem.
2. Accuracy : - Secondary data may not be accurate. Secondary data
available to researcher may not be genuine which results in inferior
quality of secondary data. Researcher need to be careful while
selecting sec ondary data to be used for his research.
3. Relevance : The secondary data available to the researcher may not be
collected for the research which is undertaken by the researcher.
Secondary data is data collected by some other researcher earlier for
some othe r research problem. Considering above Secondary Data may
not be relevant for the research.
4. Biased Information : The researcher does not have any control over
quality of secondary data. Secondary data may be affected due to bias
of researcher and respondents when it was originally collected.
5. Adequacy : The available secondary data may not be adequate for the
researcher. Secondary data is available information which was not
collected to research the problem under consideration. In such a case
researcher can no t rely only on secondary data but he has to collect
primary data for his study.
5.3. METHODS / SOURCES OF COLLECTING
SECONDARY DATA
1. Internal Sources : Internal sources refers to data available within
the organisation through its own records. An organisatio n generates
huge data which could be useful for decision making. Following are
various internal sources of Secondary Data.
a. Purchase and Sales Records
b. Record of receivables and payables
c. Record related to production
d. Financial Statements such as Profit & Loss , Balance Sheet and
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40 e. Marketing Information
f. Records related to employees etc.
2. External Sources : Secondary data can be collected through various
external sources also. It includes information collected from various
published sources such as book s, magazines, newspapers reports, research
paper online sources etc.
1. Government Publications : Central, State and local government
bodies collect huge data which can be used by researchers. Following
data is collected by various government organisations.
Census which provide demographic details of population by Registrar
General of India. Statistical Information on National Income and its
various components is published by The Central Statistical
Organisation. The Director General of commercial Intelligenc e
provide information on Imports and Exports. Information on Price of
various commodities is provided by Ministry of Commerce &
Industry.
Apart from above various other bodies organisations such as Planning
Commission, Reserve Bank of India, Ministry of Fi nance, National
Sample Survey various boards collect and publish information which
can be used as secondary data by the researcher.
2. Private Organisations: Apart from government there are various
private organisations which collect data and make it availabl e to anyone
by charging some fees. In India there are organisations such as The
Operation Research Group, The India Market Research Bureau, Pathfinder
etc who provide required information to the researcher.
3. General Publications : It includes various public ations such as
newspapers, magazines, trade and professional journals, research papers,
publications of various Commerce and Trade Associations. It can also use
publications made by International Organisations such as WHO, WTO,
World Bank, IMF, United Nati ons etc. Apart from this researcher can also
use information from various specialised libraries, reference libraries for
collection of secondary data.
5.4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF METHODS OF
DATA COLLECTION
The researcher needs to collect data for h is research. It is a crucial decision
for the researcher to choose a method of data collection for his study. The
most desirable approach with regard to the selection of the method
depends on the nature of the particular problem and on the time and
resourc es (money and personnel) available along with the desired degree
of accuracy needed for the study. There are several factors that affect the
decision to choose a particular method of collecting data which are as
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41 1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry : This constitutes the most
important factor affecting the choice of a particular method. The
method selected should be such that it suits the type of enquiry that is
to be conducted by the researcher. This factor is also important in
deciding whether the data already available (secondary data) are to
be used or the data not yet available (primary data) are to be
collected.
2. Availability of funds: Availability of funds for the research project
determines to a large extent the method to be used for the collec tion
of data. When funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited,
he will have to select a comparatively cheaper method which may
not be as efficient and effective as some other costly method.
Finance, in fact, is a big constraint in practice an d the researcher has
to act within this limitation.
3. Time factor: Availability of time has also to be taken into account in
deciding a particular method of data collection. Some methods take
relatively more time, whereas with others the data can be collecte d in
a comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the
researcher, thus, affects the selection of the method by which the
data are to be collected.
4. Precision required: Precision required is yet another important
factor to be considered at t he time of selecting the method of
collection of data.
5. Availability of Research Staff : This is also an important factor
while selecting a method to collect primary data researcher may have
to appoint trained staff who can collect and process data. Without
trained staff it is highly difficult for the researcher to collect and
process data hence it is an important factor in selecting data
collection method.
6. Availability of Respondent : Availability of respondents is also a
crucial factor while deciding data collection method. No of
respondents from which data can be collected in a given time frame
decide the method of collecting data. If no of respondents are less,
Researcher can prefer personal interview, if the number is large then
he may prefer mail survey .
5.6 SAMPLING
5.6.1 Meaning
Sampling is a technique of selecting a subset (part) of the population to
make statistical inferences (conclusion) from them and estimate
characteristics of the whole population. Different sampling methods are
widely used by re searchers in market research so that they do not need to
research the entire population to collect data. It is also a time -convenient
and a cost -effective method and hence forms the ba sis of any research
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42 In other words, Sampling means the process of selecting a part of the
population. A population is a group of people that is studied in a research.
It is difficult f or a researcher to study the whole population due to limited
resources such as time, cost and energy. Hence, the researcher selects a
part of the population for his study, rather than studying whole population.
This process is known as sampling. It makes t he research activity
manageable and convenient for the research.
5.6.2 Definition
According to Bogrdus, “Sampling is the selection of certain percentage
of a group of items according to a predetermined plan.”
5.6.3 Significance of Sampling
1. Time Saving: Since using a sample reduces the number of people
that have to be reached out to, it reduces time.Sampling helps to save time
in respect of data collection and its analysis. The data can be collected at
faster rate, so also data analysis. Therefore, the rese archer can get quick
research results and accordingly can take timely action.
2. Economical: Since using a sample reduces the number of people
that have to be reached out to, it also reduces cost.For any research,
availability of funds is a constraint. A smal ler sample requires less funds
not only for data collection but also for processing and interpretation of
data.
3. Reduced resource deployment: It is obvious that if the number of
people involved in a research study is much lower due to the sample, the
resou rces required are also much less. The workforce needed to research
the sample is much less than the workforce needed to study the whole
population.
4. Convenient: Sampling offers convenient to the researcher to collect
the data. The work of data collection be comes easy, quick and economical.
A researcher can complete his research project in time.
5. Quality of Research Work: The quality of research work may be
improved due to sampling. The field staff will get sufficient time to collect
the data from sample resp ondents. They need not to rush through the
collection of data. Also, data analysis staff gets sufficient time for data
analysis purpose. Therefore, overall quality of research work improves.
6. Reduce Complexities: Sampling helps to reduce complexities in
research work. If a limited sample is used, then fewer respondents are
required to collect data. As a result, the researcher may require less time
for editing, coding and interpretation of data. Therefore, analysis can be
quick and without complexities.

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43 7. Motivation to Research Staff: Limited sample size brings relief to
the research staff. They get motivated to collect the right information. This
is because they get sufficient time for collection and analysis of data. They
may also get higher rewards due to good quality research work.
8. Detailed Information: Due to sampling, the researcher can collect
detailed information from the sample respondents. They can ask more
questions than questions in questionnaire. Since there are lesser
respondents, the data coll ected from a sample is intense and thorough.
More time and effort is given to each respondent rather than having to
collect data from a lot of people.
9. Infinite Population: If the population is too larger then the
sampling method is the best way to find out solution.
10. Accuracy of data: Since the sample is indicative of the population,
the data collected is accurate. Also, since the respondent is willing to
participate, the survey dropout rate is much lower, which increases the
validity and accuracy of the data.
5.6.4 Methods of Sampling

5.6.5 Probability Sampling Method
Probability sampling is a method of deriv ing a sample where the objects
are selected from a population -based on the theory of probability. This
method includes everyone in the population, and everyone has an equal
chance of being selected. Hence, there is no bias whatsoever in this type of
sample . Each person in the population can subsequently be a part of the
research. The selection criteria are decided at the outset of the market
research study and form an important component of research.
The various probability sampling methods are discussed a s below:
1. Simple Random Sampling: This is the most popular method
which is normally followed to collect research data. This technique
provides every member an equal chance of being selected in the
sample. The members are selected randomly and purely by chan ce.
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44  Lottery Method: Where each member is given a number and then
the numbers are mixed and by drawing of lots, the sample is
selected.

 Random Tables: The members are given numbers and the
numbers are placed in rows. The sample is selected from rows at
random.

2. Systematic Sampling: Systematic sampling is a sampling method
where the researcher chooses respondents at equal intervals from a
population. Every member of the population is listed with a number, but
instead of random ly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular
intervals. Example : If the total population is 100 and the sample size is
10. Each respondent is given a number from 1 to100. A certain number is
selected say no. 3. So number consist of 3, 13, 23, 33, 43, 63, 73, 83, 93
will be selected as sample.
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45 3. Stratified Random Sampling: This sampling method is appropriate
when the population has mixed characteristics, and researcher wants to
ensure that every characteristic is proportionally represented in t he
sample. Researcher divides the population into subgroups (called strata)
based on the relevant characteristic (e.g. gender, age range, income
bracket, job role). The strata are formed by researcher. Then he/she uses
random or systematic sampling to sel ect a sample from each subgroup.
Example - The company has 800 female employees and 200 male
employees. Researcher wants to ensure that the sample reflects the gender
balance of the company, so he/she sorts the population into two strata
based on gender. T hen researcher uses random sampling on each group,
selecting 80 women and 20 men, which give researcher a representative
sample of 100 people.

4. Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling also involves dividing the
population into subgroups, but each subgroup shou ld have similar
characteristics to the whole sample. The clusters are naturally formed.
Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, researcher randomly
selects entire subgroups. If the clusters themselves are large, researcher
can select sample fr om each cluster using simple random or systematic
sampling method. This method is good for dealing with large and
dispersed populations, but there is more risk of error in the sample, as
there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s difficu lt to
guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative of the whole
population. Example - The Company has offices in 10 cities across the
country (all with roughly the same number of employees in similar roles).
Researcher doesn’t have the cap acity to travel to every office to collect
data, so he/she uses random sampling to select 3 offices – these are the
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46

5.6.6 Non -Probability Sampling Method
Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling technique in which the
researcher select s samples based on the subjective judgment of the
researcher rather than random selection. It is a less stringent method. This
sampling method depends heavily on the expertise of the researchers. It is
carried out by observation, and researchers use it wid ely for qualitative
research.
1. Convenient Sampling: It is a type of where samples are selected
from the population only because they are conveniently available to
the researcher. O nly those members are selected which are easily
accessible to the researcher. Eg. A researcher may visit a college or a
university and get questionnaires filled in by volunteer students.
Similarly, a researcher may stand in a market and interview the
volun teer persons.
Ideally, in research, it is good to test a sample that represents the
population. But, in some research, the population is too large to
examine. It is one of the reasons why researchers rely on convenience
sampling, which is the most common non-probability sampling
method, because of its speed, cost -effectiveness, and ease of
availability of the sample.


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47 2. Judgment or Purposive Sampling: In this method of sampling
researchers select the samples based purely on the researcher’s knowledge
and credibility. In other words, researchers choose only those people who
they deem fit to participate in the research study. Judgmental or purposive
sampling is not a scientific method of sampling, and the downside to this
sampling technique is that the preco nceived notions of a researcher can
influence the results. Thus, this research technique involves a high amount
of ambiguity.

3. Quota Sampling: Under this method, the researcher allocates
certain quota to certain groups under study. The quotas may differ f rom
each area depending upon certain factors like age, occupation, income etc.
Eg. A researcher studying the newspaper reading habits of college
students may select 10 colleges for data collection. He may fix quota for
each college based on certain criteri a. He may select 100 students from
one college, may be because the number of students is more in that
college; and he may select only 20 students from another college because
of less number of students in that college.


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48 4. Snow -Ball Sampling: Snowball sam pling helps researchers find a
sample when they are difficult to locate. Researchers use this technique
when the sample size is small and not easily available. This sampling
system works like the referral program. It is a sampling design in which
responden ts selected earlier are asked to identify other sample members.
Eg. To find out Mercedez Benz car owners in the city like Mumbai. In this
case, researcher may locate one Mercedez Benz owner and collect the
names of 2 -3 other Mercedez Benz owners.


5.6.7 Factors determining sample size
1. Area of Research: The number of sample respondents depends on the
area of research. If the research is conducted at national level, it may
require more number of respondent. If the research is conducted at
local level, it may require less number of respondents.
2. Availability of Funds: Generally, the researcher may be constrained
by the limitation of funds to conduct the research. Therefore, when the
researcher has limited amount of funds allocated to the research
activity, the sample size would be lesser as compared to when the
researcher has larger amount of funds.
3. Availability of Manpower: The researcher may require manpower to
conduct surveys, interviews or for conducting experiments,
observation etc. Eg. If the research er has a good number of filed staff
to conduct interviews, he may select the larger sample size of
respondents and vice -versa.
4. Time Frame: The sample size may depend on the time frame of
research. If the researcher has lot of time available to conduct the
research, he may select a large sample size of respondents and vice -
versa.
5. Nature of Research: The nature of research may influence the sample
size of respondents. E.g. In case of academic research, the researcher
may be constrained with the limitations o f funds, and therefore, he
may select a smaller sample size. However, in the case of census
survey of population, the sample size will be the entire population of
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49 6. Method of Sampling: The method of sampling may influence the
sample size of resp ondents. E.g. If convenience sampling method is
used, the researcher may consider a smaller sample size to obtain
responses. However, in case of stratified sampling or cluster sampling,
the researcher needs to select a larger sample size of respondents.
7. Method / Sources of Data Collection: The method of data collection
may influence the sample size of respondents. E.g. If researcher
collects data through interviews, he may select a larger sample size of
respondents. However, if the researcher adopts observ ation method, he
may consider a smaller sample size for the purpose of observation.
8. Judgment of the Researcher: At times, the researcher may use his
judgement in deciding in the sample size. He may consider a smaller
sample size, if he is confident in gett ing the adequate data from a
smaller sample size. However, if the researcher feels that he needs to
select a larger sample to collect responses, he may select a larger
sample size.
5.7 SUMMARY
This unit had given in depth information on Secondary Data. It also
discusses various factors which affect the decision of choosing a method
of data collection. Both units of Research process collective provide basic
information to learner regarding Research Process, Data collection,
various methods of data collec tion, its advantages and disadvantages etc
Sampling is the last part of this unit. Since the researcher cannot collect
data from the entire population/universe under study, he/she can select
samples by adopting different methods of sampling. Research data is
collected from these samples and the result of it is generalized on the
entire population / universe under study.
5.8 QUESTIONS
1. Explain sources of Secondary Data.
2. What are factors influencing choosing method of data collection.
3. Define the term ‘Samplin g’. Explain its significance.
4. Discuss various methods of sampling.
5. What are the factors determining sample size?
State following statements are True or False
1. Questionnaire is used to collect Secondary Data
2. Tabulation of data helps in analysis and interpret ation of data
3. Internal sources of secondary data collection include Government
Statistics.
4. Collection of Secondary Data is time consuming than primary data
( True - 3 False - 1,2,4,5)
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50 5.9 REFERENCES

 Research Methodology : MichaleVaz, Aurora Vaz : M anan Prakashan
 Research Methodology Methods and Techniques : C. R. Kothari, New
Age International Publishers
 Research Methodology : R Panneerselvam, PHL Learning

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
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51 6
DATA PRESENTATION
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1. Introduction
6.2 Methods of Data Processing in Research
6.3 Statistical Analysis
6.4 Measures of Dispersion
6.5 Summary
6.6 Questions
6.7 Reference
6.0 OBJECTIVES
1. To know the concept of data proc essing
2. To explain the different statistical methods in research analysis
3. To understand the concept of hypothesis testing and various statistical
test
4. To understand the significance and precautions in data analysis
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Quanti tative information may be found almost everywhere. But not all
numerical data is statistical so it is necessary to examine a few definitions
of statistics and to understand the features of statistical data. One of the
most important objectives of statistic al analysis is to get one single value
that describes the characteristics of the entire mass of unwieldy data.
Such a value is called central value.
6.2 METHODS OF DATA PROCESSING IN RESEARCH
6.2.1. Data Processing :
Data processing is a set of methods that are used to input, retrieve, verify,
store, organize, analyse or interpret a set of data. Data processing enables
information to be automatically extracted from data. Data processing starts
with data in its raw form and converts it into a more readabl e format
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52 interpreted by computers and utilized by employees throughout an
organization.
The essence of data processing in research is data reduction. Data
reduction involves sorting out the irrelevant from the relevant data and
establishing order from chaos and giving shape to a mass of data.
Data processing in research consists of five important steps. They are
following :
6.2.2. Editing of Data :
Editing is the first step in data p rocessing . Editing is the process of
examining the data collected in questionnaires/schedules to detect errors
and omissions and to see that they are corrected and the schedules are
ready for tabulation. When the whole data collection is over a final and a
systematic check up is made.
Mildred B. Parten in his book points out that the editor is responsible for
seeing that the data are;
i. Accurate as possible
ii. Consistent with other facts secured
iii. Uniformly entered
iv. As complete as possible
v. Acceptable for tabulati on and arranged to facilitate coding tabulation.
6.2.3 Different types of editing .
i. Editing for quality asks the following questions:
 Are the data forms complete?
 Are the data free of bias?
 Are the recordings free of errors?
 Are the inconsistencies in resp onses within limits?
 Are there evidences to show dishonesty of enumerators or
interviewers?
 Are there any excessive manipulation of data? Etc.
i. Editing for tabulation does certain accepted modification to data or
even rejecting certain pieces of data in or der to facilitate tabulation.
Orfor instance, extremely high or low value data item may be ignored or
bracketed with suitable class interval.
ii. Field Editing is done by the respondent. The schedule filled up by the
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53 These are rectified by the enumerator. This should be done soon after the
enumeration or interview.
iii. Central Editing is done by the researcher after getting all schedules or
questionnaires or forms from the respondents. Obviou s errors can be
corrected. For missed data or information, the editor may substitute data
or information by reviewing information provided by likely placed other
respondents. A definite inappropriate answer is removed and “no
answer” is entered when reason able attempts to get the appropriate
answer fail to produce results.
6.2.4 Coding of Data :
Meaning
Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several replies
may be reduced to a small number of classes which contain the critical
informa tion required for analysis.
Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing stage of the
questionnaire. This makes it possible to pre -code the questionnaire choices
and which in turn is helpful for computer tabulation as one can straight
forward key punch from the original questionnaires. But in case of hand
coding some standard method may be used. One such standard method is
to code in the margin with a coloured pencil. The other method can be to
transcribe the data from the questionnaire to a c oding sheet. Whatever
method is adopted, one should see that coding errors are altogether
eliminated or reduced to the minimum level.
Coding is the process/operation by which data/responses are organized
into classes/categories and numerals or other symbol s are given to each
item according to the class in which it falls. In other words, coding
involves two important operations;
i. deciding the categories to be used and
ii. allocating individual answers to them.
These categories should be appropriate to the rese arch problem,
exhaustive of the data, mutually exclusive and unidirectional. Since the
coding eliminates much of information in the raw data, it is important that
researchers design category sets carefully in order to utilize the available
data more fully.
In the case of pressing – coded questions, coding begins at the preparation
of interview schedules. Secondly, coding frame is developed by listing the
possible answers to each question and assigning code numbers or symbols
to each of them which are the in dicators used for coding. The coding
frame is an outline of what is coded and how it is to be coded. That is,
coding frame is a set of explicit rules and conventions that are used to base
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54 After preparing the sample frame the gradual process of fitting the
answers to the questions must be begun. Lastly, transcription is undertaken
i.e., transferring of the information from the schedules to a separate sheet
called transcription sheet. Transcription sheet is a large summary sheet
which contain the answer/codes of all the respondents. Transcription may
not be necessary when only simple tables are required and the number of
respondents are few.
6.2.5. Classification of Data :
Classification or categorization of data is the process of grouping the
statistical data under various understandable homogeneous groups for the
purpose of convenient interpretation. A uniformity of attributes is the
basic criterion for classifi cation and the grouping of data is made
according to similarity. Classification becomes necessary when there is
diversity in the data collected for meaningless presentation and analysis.
However, it is meaningless in respect of homogeneous data. A good
classification should have the characteristics of clarity, homogeneity,
equality of scale, purposefulness and accuracy.
6.2.6. Objectives of Classification of data are below:
i. The complex and scattered data is organized into logical and
intelligible form.
ii. It is possible to make the characteristics of similarities and dis –
similarities clear.
iii. Comparative studies is possible.
iv. Understanding of the significance is made easier and thereby good
deal of human energy is saved.
v. Underlying unity amongst different items is made clear and
expressed.
vi. Data is so arranged that analysis and generalization becomes possible.
6.2.7. Types of Classification of data :
Classification of data is of two types
I. Quantitative classification : It is on the basis of variables or quantity
II. Qualitative classification : It is classification according to attributes.
The quantitative classification is the way of grouping the variables, say,
quantifying the variables in cohesive groups, while the qualitative groups
the data on the basis of attrib utes or qualities.
Again, it may be multiple classification or dichotomous classification. The
former is the way of making many (more than two) groups on the basis of
some quality or attributes while the latter is the classification into two
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55 the workers of a factory under various income (class intervals) groups
come under the multiple classification and making two groups into skilled
workers and unskilled workers is the dichotomous c lassification. The
tabular form of such classification is known as statistical series, which
may be inclusive or exclusive.
6.2.8 Tabulation of Data :
Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying it in
compact form for further analysis. Therefore, preparing tables is a very
important step. Tabulation may be by hand, mechanical, or electronic. The
choice is made largely on the basis of the size and type of study,
alternative costs, time pressures, and the availability of computers, and
computer programmes. If the number of questionnaire is small, and their
length short, hand tabulation is quite satisfactory.
Table may be divided into: (i) Frequency tables (ii) Response tables (iii)
Contingency tables (iv) Uni -variate tables (v) Bi -variate tables (vi)
Statistical table and (vii) Time series tables.
Necessary steps in the preparation of table:
i. Title of table: The table should be first given a brief, simple and
clear title which may express the basis of classification.
ii. Columns and rows: Each t able should be prepared in just adequate
number of columns and rows.
iii. Captions and stubs: The columns and rows should be given simple
and clear captions and stubs.
iv. Ruling: Columns and rows should be divided by means of thin or
thick rulings.
v. Arrangement of items : Comparable figures should be arranged
side by side.
vi. Deviations: These should be arranged in the column near the
original data so that their presence may easily be noted.
vii. Size of columns: This should be according to the requirement.
viii. Special emphasis : This can be done by writing important data in
bold or special letters.
ix. Foot – notes: These may be given below the table.
x. Total: Totals of each column and grand total should be in one line.
xi. Source : Source of data must be given. For primary data, write
primary data.
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56 It is always necessary to present facts in tabular form if they can be
presented more simply in the body of the text. Tabular presentation
enables the reader to follow quickly than textual presentation. A table
should not merely repeat informa tion covered in the text. The same
information should not, of course be presented in tabular form and
graphical form. Smaller and simpler tables may be presented in the text
while the large and complex table may be placed at the end of the chapter
or repor t.
6.2.9 Data Diagrams :
Diagrams are charts and graphs used to present data. These facilitate
getting the attention of the reader more. These help presenting data more
effectively. Creative presentation of data is possible.
The data diagrams classified i nto as follows :
i. Charts: A chart is a diagrammatic form of data presentation. Bar
charts, rectangles, squares and circles can be used to present data. Bar
charts are uni -dimensional, while rectangular, squares and circles are
two-dimensional.
ii. Graphs: The method of presenting numerical data in visual form is
called graph, A graph gives relationship between two variables by
means of either a curve or a straight line.
Graphs may be divided into two categories.
a. Graphs of Time Series and
b. Graphs of Frequency Distribution.
6.2.10 Significance of Data Processing in Research:
 Data processing helps to make reports easy because the data has been
processed, it can be used directly. These processed data can be
organized in such a way that they can help to conduct analysis quickly.
Predefined data helps experts in making conclusions faster.
 Data processing maintains accuracy and speed in data analysis.
Complex data can be processed in a minute and can store necessary
data. In the processing of research data, the sy stem will automatically
check and process invalid data. Therefore, such processes help
researchers to ensure high accuracy in data management.
 Data processing is very helpful in breaking a macro problem into a
micro problem. It helps to detect errors and o missions.
 Data processing acts like a filter when it comes to acquiring meaningful
insights out of a huge data set.
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57  Data processing helps in keeping human bias away from the research
conclusion with the help of proper statistical treatment.
 Data pr ocessing further helps in cost reduction, ease in storage,
distributing and report making followed by better analysis and
presentation are other advantages.
6.3 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: TOOLS AND
TECHNIQUE
Masseurs of Central Tendency:
6.3.1 Definition:
A mea sure of central tendency is a representative number that
characterizes the “middleness” of an entire set of data. The three measures
of central tendency are the mean, the median, and the mode.
The term central tendency or average have been defined by vario us
researchers in following ways
Simpson and Kafka “ A measure of central tendency is a typical value
around which other figures congregate”
Clark “Average is an attempt to find one single figure do describe whole
of figures”
It is clear from the abov e definitions that an average is a single value
which represents a whole series and is supposed to contain its major
characteristics.
6.3.2 Types of Averages :
Measure of central tendency or averages are usually of the following types
1) Mathematical Ave rages :
I. Arithmetic Average or mean
II. Geometric mean
III. Harmonic mean
2) Averages of position :
I. Median
II. Mode
Of the above mentioned five important averages, Arithmetic mean,
median and mode are the most popular ones. Besides these there are other
averages l ike Quadratic mean, moving average and progressive average
etc. Moving and progressive averages are used in the analysis of
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58 6.3.3 Arithmetic Mean :
The most widely used measure of representi ng the entire data by one value
is generally called an average and what the statistician call is arithmetic
mean. Its value is obtained by adding together all the items and by
dividing this total by the number of items. Arithmetic means may either
be :
i. Simple arithmetic mean
ii. Weighted arithmetic mean
i. Calculation of Simple Arithmetic mean :
The process of computing mean is case of individual series. At first add
together the various values of the variable and divide the total by the
number of items. Symbo lically,

µ (pronounced “mu”) = the symbol for the population mean i.e. Arithmetic
mean ;
X1+X2+……….Xn = Value of variable
N = Number of observations
Short cut Method :
Arithmetic mean cab be calculated by using an arbitrary origin when
deviations are taken from an arbitrary origin. The formula for calculating
mean is

A = assumed mean
d = deviations values form assumed mean
Calculation of mean Discrete series :
In discrete series mean
mat be computed by applying direct
method of shortcut method.
Direct Method :
The formula for computing mean is

= frequency
variables in questions
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59 Short Cut method :
The formula for computing mean is

Calculation of Arithmetic mean: Continuous Series
In continuous series arith metic mean may be computed by applying any of
the following methods.
Direct Method :

m = mid value of class
f = the frequency of each class
Shortcut method :

A= Assumed mean
d = deviations of mid points from assumed mean
N = total number of obs ervation
6.3.4 Merits and limitations of Arithmetic mean :
Merits :
i. It is the simplest average to understand and to compute
ii. It is affected by the value of every item in the series
iii. It is suitable for further mathematical treatment
iv. It is least affected b y the fluctuations of sampling
6.3.5 Limitations :
i. Sometime the abnormal items may considerably affect the average
value when the number of items is not large.
ii. In a distribution with open and classes the value of mean cannot be
computed without making as sumption regarding the size of the class
interval of the open end class.
6.3.6 Median
Meaning
Another measure of central tendency, the median, is used in situations in
which the mean might not be representative of a distribution. The median
by definition refers to the middle value in a distribution.
Yule and Kendall “the median may be defined as the middle most or
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60 descending order. In case of a frequency curve the median may be de fined
as that value of the variable which divides the area of the curve into two
equal parts”
The median is the middle score in a distribution after the scores have been
arranged from highest to lowest or lowest to highest. The point to
remember is that t he median is not affected by extreme scores in a
distribution because it is only a positional value. The mean is affected by
extreme scores because its value is determined by a calculation that has to
include the extreme values.
Median is called as a posit ional average. The terms ‘position’ refers to the
place of a value in a series. The median is calculated by averaging the two
middle scores. In other words, we determine the middle point between the
two middle scores. Median is thus the central value of th e distribution or
the value that divides the distribution into two parts.
Calculation of Median :
The calculation of median involves two basic steps.
i. The location of the middle item an d
ii. Finding out its value
The middle item in series of individual obs ervation and also in a discrete
series is

Where N is the total number of observations.
In case of continues series (N/2)th item is the middle item of the series.
Once the middle item is located its value has to be found out. In a series of
individual observation if the total number of items is an odd figure, the
value of the middle item is the median value. If N is even, median is half
the sum of the two middle values.
Problem :
Find out the median of the following items
7,9,15,17,22,25,29,35,40
Solution :
These items would first be arranged in ascending order of magnitude the
series then would be as follows

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61 Sr. No Size of items 1 7
2 9
3 15
4 17
5 22
6 25
7 29
8 35
9 40

thitem
thitem
M= 5th item
Thus M = 22
Computation of Median in a Discrete series:
The various steps in the computation of median in a discrete series are as
follows:
i. Arrange the values in ascending or descending order of magnitude
ii. Find out the cumulative frequencies
iii. Find out the diddle item by the formula
thitem
iv. Now find out the value of
thitem. It can be
found by first locating the cumulative frequency which is equal to
or next higher to it and then determining the value
corresponding to it. This will be the value of the median.
Solution :
Find out then value of median from the following data
Marks : 4, 6,8,10,12
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62 Marks in ascending order
(X) Students
(Frequency
) Cumulative frequency
(C.F)
4 1 1
6 4 5
8 5 10
10 3 13
12 2 15
N = 15

Median is the value of
thitem
thitem
thitem
7.5th item comes under in the group of 10 Cumulative frequency.
Thus the median value would be 8
Computation of Median in a Continuous series :
While computing the value of median in a continuous series the middle
item is the (N/2)th item and no t
thitem
In a continues frequency distribution the value of median would be in
class interval. To set a precise value of median we assume that the
frequency of the median class is uniformly spread over the whole class
interval. On this assumption the val ue of the median can be located by the
following formula.

Where
M = the value of median
= the lower limit of the class in which median lies
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63 c.f. = the cumulative frequency of the median class
i = the magnitude of the me dian class interval
Problem and solution :
X Frequency c.f.
0-10 15 15
10-20 17 32
20-30 19 51
30-40 27 78
40-50 19 97
50-60 13 110 N = 10

Median value of N/2 is 55th item which is lies in the 30 -40 class
intervals. \now applying the formula of interpolation







6.3.7 Merits of Arithmetic median :
i. It is not affected by the values of the extreme items and as such is
sometimes more representative than arithmetic average.
ii. Even if the value of extremes is not known median can be calculate d if
the number of items is known
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64 6.3.8 Limitations of Arithmetic median:
i. For calculating median it is necessary to arrange the data other average
do not need any arrangement
ii. Since it is a positional average, its value is not determined by each and
every observations
iii. The value of median is affected more by sampling fluctuations than the
value if arithmetic mean
6.3.9 Mode.
The third measure of central tendency is the mode —the score in a
distribution that occurs with the greatest frequency. The mode is the only
indicator of central tendency that can be used with nominal data. Although
it can also be used with ordinal, interval, or ratio data, the mean and
median are more reliable indicators of the cen tral tendency of a
distribution, and the mode is seldom used.
The mode refers to that value in a distribution which occurs most
frequently. It is an actual value which has the highest concentration of
items in and around it. The value of the variable at wh ich the curve
reaches a maximum is called the mode.
Calculation of Mode :
i. Individual Observations :
For ungrouped data or series of individual observations mode is often
found by mere inspection.
Example : 30,31,33,34,33,34,37,33,35,38,
Since 33 number a ppeared three times
Thus Mode = 33
ii. Discrete series :
In discrete series very often mode can be located merely by inspection as
the value having the highest frequency would generally be the modal
value.
Example :
Value 7 9 10 12 15 Frequency 3 15 12 9 10
Clearly the value of mode is 9 as it carries the maximum frequency of 15.
However on all cases the maximum frequency may not necessarily
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65 Calculation of mode: Continuous Series
i. By preparing grouping table and anal ysis table or by inspection
ascertain the modal class
ii. Determine the value of mode by applying formula

Where
= lower limit of modal class
= frequency of the modal class
= frequency of the modal class preceding the modal class
= frequency of the modal class succeeding the modal class
= Size of the class interval of modal class
Example:
X 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90 F 8 20 25 22 10 8 7

The modal class is 40 -50 since it have highest frequency i.e. 25

= 40 ,
= 25 ,
= 20 ,
= 22 ,
= 10
Mode (
= 46.25
6.4 MEASURES OF DISPERSION
6.4.1 Meaning and Definition
As we know that the various measures of central value gives us one single
figure that represents the entire data. But the averages alone cannot
adequately des cribes a set of observations unless all the observations are
the same. It is necessary to describe the dispersion of the observations.
Thus measures of dispersion help us in studying important feature of a
distribution.
Brooks and Dick “Dispersion or sp read is the degree of the scatter
variation of the variables about a central value.”
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66 A measure of central tendency provides information about the
“middleness” of a distribution of scores but not about the width or spread
of the distribution. To assess the width of a distribution, we need a
measure of variation or dispersion. A measure of variation indicates the
degree to which scores are either clustered or spread out in a distribution.
As an illustration, consider the two very small distributions of exam scores
shown in following table.
Class 1 Class 2
0 45
50 50
100 55
= 150
=150



Notice that the mean is the same for both distributions. If these data
represented two very small classes of students, reporting that the two
classes had the sa me mean on the exam might lead you to conclude that
the classes performed essentially the same. Notice, however, how different
the distributions are. Providing a measure of variation along with a
measure of central tendency conveys the information that eve n though the
distributions have the same mean, their spreads are very different.
We will discuss three measures of variation: the range, the mean
deviation, and the standard deviation. The range can be used with ordinal,
interval, or ratio data however, t he standard deviation and average
deviation are appropriate for only interval and ratio data.
A. Range :
The simplest measure of variation is the range —the difference between
the lowest and the highest scores in a distribution. The range is usually
reported with the mean of the distribution. To find the range, we simply
subtract the lowest score from the highest score. In our hypothetical
distributions of exam scores in above table, the range for Class 1 is 100
points, whereas the range for Class 2 is 10 poi nts. Thus, the range provides
some information concerning the difference in the spreads of the
distributions. In this simple measure of variation, however, only the
highest and lowest scores enter the calculation, and all other scores are
ignored. Thus, th e range is easily distorted by one unusually high or low
score in a distribution.

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67 B. Mean Deviation:
It is the more sophisticated measures of variation use all of the scores in
the distribution in their calculation. The average which is frequently used
in computing the mean deviation is mean or median.
Mean deviation denoted by Greek letter, small “ δ ”. The sign of average
taken in deviation s used as subscript.
δxor= mean deviation form mean
δM= mean deviation from median
δM0 = Mean deviation from mode
Coefficient of mean Deviation :
Mean deviation when is divided by the average used for calculating it we
get coefficient of mean deviation.

Computation of Mean Deviation : Individual series
There are two methods of calculating the mean deviation from a series of
individual observations.
i. Direct Method :
The word devia tion means to diverge, move away from, or digress. In this
method the mean deviation would be calculated by totalingthe deviations
and dividing the total by the number of items.
Mean Deviation

In the short cut method mean or median is calculated and the total of the
values of the items below the mean or median and above it are found out.
The former is subtracted from the latter and is divided by the number of
items. The resulting figure is the mean deviation.
Computation of Mean Deviation : Discrete series
In discrete series the calculation of mean deviation involve the following
steps:
i. Calculating the median or mean of the series (M)
ii. Find the deviations from the median or mean ignoring plus minus
signs

iii. Multiply the deviations with the respecti ve frequency and get the total
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68 iv. Divide the total by the number of observations. This will be the value
of mean deviation.
Symbolically :
δm
and
δx

C. Standard Deviation :
The most commonly used measure of variation is the standard deviation.
In othe r words that might be substituted for the word standard include
average, normal, and usual. The standard deviation means the average
movement away from something. It is the average movement away from
the center of the distribution —the mean. The standard de viation, then, is
the average distance of all the scores in the distribution from the mean or
central point of the distribution —or, the square root of the average
squared deviation from the mean.
Standard deviation first suggested by Karl Person in 1893. It may be
defined as “Root -Mean Square Deviation” from the mean. It is usually
denoted by the Greek letter
(sigma).
Calculation of standard deviation : individual observations
In case of individual observations standard deviation may be computed by
applying any of the following two methods.
i. Deviation taken from the actual mean :
By Taking deviation of the items from the actual mean. In the method
following formula is applied.

Steps :
i. Calculating the actual mean of the series
ii. Tae the deviations of the items from the mean
iii. Square these deviations and obtain that total

iv. Divide
by the total number of observations i.e. N and extract
square root. This gives us the value of S.D.
ii. Deviations taken from Assumed Mean :
When deviation are taken from assumed mean the following formula is
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69

Steps :
i. Take the deviations of the items from an assumed mean. Denote these
deviations by d. take the total of these deviations i.e. obtain

ii. Square these deviations and obtain the total

iii. Substitute the values of
and N in the above formula.
Calculation of S.D : Discrete Series
i. Assumed mean method
When this method is used the following formula is applied

Where d = (X -A)
Steps :
i. Take the deviations of the items from an assumed mean and denote
these deviations by d
ii. Multiply these deviations by the respective frequencies and obtain the
total

iii. Multiply the squared deviations by the respective frequencies and
obtain the total
Substitute the value sin the above
formula.
Example :
X F d= (X -A) fd


10 8 -30 -240 900 7200
20 12 -20 -240 400 4800
30 20 -10 -200 100 2000
40 10 0 0 0 0
50 7 10 70 100 700
60 3 20 60 400 1200
N=60


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70





ii. Step Deviation method :
When this method is used we take a common factor from the given data.
The formula for computing standard deviation is:

Where
and C= common factor
Calculation of standard deviation: Continuous series
In continues series any of the method discussed above for discrete
frequency distribution can be used. However in practice i t is the step
deviation method that is mostly used.

X F M.V
F × d

0-10 18 5 -40 -720 28800
10-20 16 15 -30 -480 14400
720-30 15 25 -20 -300 6000
30-40 12 35 -10 -120 1200
40-50 10 45 0 0 0
50-60 05 55 10 50 500
60-70 02 65 20 40 800
70-80 1 75 30 30 900
N = 79


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71

× 10
× 10
× 10
× 10
× 10

6.5 SUMMARY
The central tendency of a distribution is typically contrasted with
its dispersion or variab ility; dispersion and central tendency are the often
characterized properties of distributions. Analysis may judge whether data
has a strong or a weak central tendency based on its dispersion. In
statistics, a central tendency is a central or typical value for a probability
distribution. It may also be called a center or location of the distribution.
Colloquially, measures of central tendency are often called averages. A
measure of central tendency is a summary statistic that represents the
center point or typical value of a dataset. These measures indicate where
most values in a distribution fall and are also referred to as the central
location of a distribution. You can think of it as the tendency of data to
cluster around a middle value.
6.6. QUESTIONS
A. Test your knowledge by choosing the correct option:
Q1. ………………. is a set of methods that are used to input, retrieve,
verify, store, organize, analyse or interpret a set of data. (Data processing ,
Central Tendency, Parametric test, Non Parametric Stat istical Tests)
Q2. ………….. involves sorting out the irrelevant from the relevant data .(
Data reduction, Data Processing, Data Collection, Data mining)
Q3……………. is done by the respondent. (Field Editing, Central
Editing, Editing for tabulation, Editing fo r quality)
Q4. …………….. of data is the process of grouping the statistical data
under various understandable homogeneous groups for the purpose of
convenient interpretation. (Coding, Editing, Tabulation, Classification)
Q5. The method of presenting numeri cal data in visual form is
called………. ( Editing,Graph, Chart, Coding) munotes.in

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72 Q6. A measure of …………tendency is a representative number that
characterizes the “middleness” of an entire set of data. (Central, Positive,
Negative, Rational)
Q7. ……….averages is not us ed in the analysis of commercial statistics.
(Moving, progressive, Quadratic mean, Arithmetic mean)
Q8. Which is the formula of Arithmetic mean
I.

II.

III.
iv. M D

Q9. The ………….is the middle score in a distribution after the scores
have be en arranged from highest to lowest or lowest to highest. ( Median,
mean, mode, correlation)
Q10. The ……….. refers to that value in a distribution which occurs most
frequently. ( Median, mean, mode, correlation)
Q11. The …………… is the average distance of all the scores in the
distribution from the mean or central point of the distribution (mean,
mode, correlation, standard deviation)
Q12. ………….is usually denoted by the Greek letter
(sigma)
(mean, mode, correlation, standard deviation)
(Answers – 1. Data processing, 2. Data processing, 3. Field Editing,
4.Classification, 5. Graph, 6. Central, 7. Quadratic mean,
8.
9. Median, 10. Mode, 11.
standard deviation, 12. standard deviation )
B. Short Answer Questions :
1. Define data processing
2. Explain the concep t editing of data
3. What is coding of data?
4. Explain Tabulation of data.
5. Define Arithmetic mean
6. Merits and limitations of Arithmetic mean.
7. Merits and limitations of Arithmetic median. munotes.in

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73 8. What is mode?
9. Define the central tendency.
10. Explain the concept Range.
6.7 REFERENCES
I. Sherri L. Jackson, (2009) , Research Methods and Statistics, A Critical
Thinking Approach, ISBN -13: 978 -0-495-51001 -7
II. BASIC ECONOMETRICS,(2003) Damodar N. Gujarati, McGraw -
Hill Higher Education ISBN: 978 -0-07-233542 -2
III. Sachdeva J.K.(2011). Bu siness Research Methodology. New Delhi:
Himalaya Publishing House.
IV. Michael V.P.(1997). Research Methodology in Management. Delhi:
Himalaya Publishing House


❖❖❖❖









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74 7
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Correlation Analysis
7.3 Regression Analysis
7.4 Role of Computers and Internet in research
7.5 Summary
7.6 Questions
7.7 References
7.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit learner will be in position;
 To examine the concept of correlation
 To analyse the regression work
 To study the role of computers and internet in research
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the Information Age, data is no longer scarce – it’s uncontrollable. The
key is to examine through the vast volume of data available and businesses
and correctly interpret its implications. But to sort through all this
information, we need the right statistical data analysis tools. With the
current obsession over big data, analysts have produced a lot of tools and
techniques for data interpretation. Statistics is a crucial process behind
how we make decisions based on data and make predictions. Statistics
tools allow research ers to understand a subject much more deeply.
7.2 CORRELATION ANALYSIS
7.2.1 Meaning:
Correlation is a statistic that measures the degree to which two variables
move in relation to each other. Correlation shows the strength of a
relationship between two va riables and is expressed numerically by the
correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficient's values range between
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75 coefficient is exactly 1. A perfect negative correlation means t hat two
variables move in opposite directions, while a zero correlation implies no
linear relationship at all.
A correlation coefficient quite close to 0, but either positive or negative,
implies little or no relationship between the two variables. A corre lation
coefficient close to plus 1 means a positive relationship between the two
variables, with increases in one of the variables being associated with
increases in the other variable.
A correlation coefficient close to -1 indicates a negative relationshi p
between two variables, with an increase in one of the variables being
associated with a decrease in the other variable. A correlation coefficient
can be produced for ordinal, interval or ratio level variables, but has little
meaning for variables which a re measured on a scale which is no more
than nominal.
The formula for correlation:

7.2.2 Types of correlation:
i. Positive correlation :
Positive correlation refers to the movement of the variable in the same
direction or a direct relationship exists betw een the two variables. This
means that an increase in one variable is related to an increase in the other,
and a decrease in one is related to a decrease in the other. This type of
correlation exist between supply and price of commodity.
ii. Negative correlat ion :
Negative or inverse correlation refers to when one variable increases or
decreases the other moves in the reverse direction. Such a correlation is
found between price and demand, when price of a commodity increases its
demand goes down or vice -versa .
iii. Simple and multiple correlation :
Under simple correlation the relationship is confined to two variables like
between the yield of wheat and the use of chemical fertilizers of between
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76 In case of multiple corr elation the relationship between more than two
variables is judged. For example the relationship of yield of wheat by
judged with reference to say chemical fertilizers irrigation and pesticides.
iv. Partial and total correlation :
These are the two types of a multiple correlation analysis. Under partial
correlation the relationship of two or more variable is examined excluding
some other variables which are included for calculation of total
correlation. \for example coefficient of correlation between yield of wheat
and chemical fertilizers excluding the effect of pesticides and manures is
called the partial correlation. And the total correlation is based on all the
relevant variables.
v. Linear and non -linear correlation :
The distinction between linear and no n-linear correlation is based upon the
ratio of change between the variables under study. When variations in the
values of two variables have constant ratio there will be linear correlation
between them. The graph of variables having such a relationship wi ll form
a straight line. In non -linear or curve liner correlation the amount of
change in the other related variable. For example when we double the use
of fertilizers the production of jute would not necessarily be doubled.
7.2.3 Graphic methods of deter mining correlation:
The different methods of finding out correlations are following.
i. Scatter Diagram :
This method is a simple and attractive method of diagrammatic
representation of a bivariate distribution for ascertaining the nature of
correlation bet ween the variables. Pairs of values (X 1, Y 1) (X 2,Y2)
…….….(X n, Yn) or two variables X and Y can be plotted as dots (.) on the
X-axis and Y axis in the XY - plane. It is customary to take the
independent variable along the horizontal or X -axis and the depen dent
vertical along the vertical or Y axis, if at all there is called a scatter
diagram.
If the patterns of points or dots on a scatter diagrams revels an upward or a
downward trend the variables are said to be correlated and if the plotted
points do not show any trend the two variables have no correlation.
The scatter diagrams may take the following shapes
1) Positive Correlation relationship :
It means that an increase in one variable is related to an increase in the
other, and a decrease in one is r elated to a decrease in the other. The
majority of the data points fall along an upward angle (from the lower -left
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77

2) Negative Correlation Relationship :
In this scatter plot, the data points extend from the upper left to the lower
right. This negative correlation indicates that an increase in one variable is
accompanied by a decrease in the other variable. This represents an
inverse relationship: The more of variable x that we have, the less we have
of variable y. Assum e that this scatter plots represents the relationship
between age and eyesight. As age increases, the ability to see clearly tends
to decrease —a negative relationship.

3) No correlation Relationship :
It is also possible to observe no meaningful relation ship between two
variables. In this scatter plot, the data points are scattered in a random
fashion. As you would expect, the correlation coefficient for these data is
very close to 0 to (.09).



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78 4) Curvilinear Relationship :
A correlation coefficient o f 0 indicates no meaningful relationship
between two variables. However, it is also possible for a correlation
coefficient of 0 to indicate a curvilinear relationship.

Imagine that above graph represents the relationship between
psychological excitement (the x -axis) and performance (the y -axis).
Individuals perform better when they are moderately stimulated than when
stimulation is either very low or very high. The correlation coefficient for
these data is also very close to 0 - (.05). The strong positiv e relationship
depicted in the left half of the graph essentially cancels out the strong
negative relationship in the right half of the graph. Although the
correlation coefficient is very low, we would not conclude that no
relationship exists between the t wo variables.
As the graph shows, the variables are very strongly related to each other in
a curvilinear manner —the points are tightly clustered in an inverted U
shape. Correlation coefficients tell us about only linear relationships.
Thus, even though th ere is a strong relationship between the two variables
graph, the correlation coefficient does not indicate this because the
relationship is curvilinear. For this reason, it is important to examine a
scatter plot of the data in addition to calculating a co rrelation coefficient.
Alternative statistics can be used to assess the degree of curvilinear
relationship between two variables.
7.3 REGRESSION ANALYSIS
Regression lines are the device used for estimating the value of one
variable from the value of the o ther consists of a line through the points
drawn in such a manner as to represent the average relationship between
the two variables. Such a line is called the line of regression.
As per the method of least square the two regressions lines are
The genera l form of each type of regression is:
 Simple linear regression: Y = a + bX + u
 Multiple linear regression: Y = a + b 1X1 + b2X2 + b 3X3 + ... + b tXt + u
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79 Where:
 Y = the variable that you are trying to predict (dependent variable).
 X = the variable that you a re using to predict Y (independent
variable).
 a = the intercept.
 b = the slope.
 u = the regression residual
Multiple regression analysis is used to see if there is a statistical ly
significant relationship between sets of variables . It’s used to find trends in
those sets of data.
Multiple regression analysis is almost the same as simple linear
regression . The only difference between simple linear regression and
multiple regression is in the number of predictors (“x” variables) used in
the regression.
Simple regression analysis uses a single x variable for each dependent “y”
variable. For example: (x1, Y1).
Multiple regression uses multiple “x” variables for each independent
variable : (x1)1, (x2)1, (x3)1, Y1).
In one -variable linear regression, you would input one dependent
variable (i.e. “sales”) against an independent variable (i.e. “profit”). But
you might be interested in how different types of sales effect the
regression. You could set your X1 as one type of sales, your X2 as another
type of sales and s o on.
7.3.1 Two lines of regression:
Since the regression relation is irreversible one equation is not sufficient to
predict the values of two variables X and Y. moreover the two regression
equations are derived under different set of assumptions, therefo re one
equation is not sufficient to find X and Y.
7.3.2 Properties of Regression coefficients :
i. Both the regression coefficients should be of the same sign.
ii. If both the regression coefficients are positive, correlation coefficient
is positive and if bot h the regression coefficients are negative the
correlation coefficient is negative.
iii. Both the regression coefficient are independent of the change of origin
but if the change of scale in X and Y is not identical they depend on the
change of scale. If the c hange of scale in X and Y is identical the
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80 iv. The correlation coefficient is the geometric mean between the
regression coefficients.
7.4 ROLE OF COMPUTERS AND INTERNET IN
RESEARCH
7.4.1 M EANING
The computers are indispensable throughout the research process. The role
of computer becomes more important when the research is on a large
sample. Data can be stored in computers for immediate use or can be
stored in auxiliary memories like flopp y discs, compact discs, universal
serial buses (pen drives) or memory cards, so that the same can be
retrieved and easily accessible from everywhere. The usage of computer
has made the job of researcher easier due to the speed in working and high
level of accuracy level. The new software has made the things easier to
understand and implement.
The computers assist the researcher throughout different phases of
research process. There are five major phases of the research process.
They are:
A. Conceptual pha se
B. Design and planning phase
C. Empirical phase
D. Analytic phase
E. Dissemination phase
A. ROLE OF COMPUTER IN CONCEPTUAL PHASE :
The conceptual phase consists of formulation of research problem, review
of literature, theoretical frame work and form ulation of hypothesis.
Computers help for searching the literatures (for review of literature) and
bibliographic references stored in the electronic databases of the
worldwide webs. The articles published in international journals can also
be accessed thro ugh computers. There are different portals available where
the researches of earlier scholars are uploaded for reference purpose. It can
thus be used for storing relevant published articles to be retrieved
whenever needed. This has the advantage over searc hing the literatures in
the form of books, journals and other newsletters at the libraries which
consume considerable amount of time and effort. The MS - Word also
helps the researcher to put references in the required style.
B. ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE:
Design and planning phase consist of research design, population, research
variables, sampling plan, reviewing research plan and pilot study. Role of
Computers for Sample Size Calculation: Several software are available to
calculate t he sample size required for a proposed study. NCSS -PASS -munotes.in

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81 GESS is such software. The standard deviation of the data from the pilot
study is required for the sample size calculation. Usage of Ms -Excel can
help the researcher to sort, analyse and present the d ata as per
requirement. Basic statistical techniques like chi -square, correlation, etc
and also be implemented with the add on features of Megastat.
C. ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN EMPIRICAL PHASE:
Empirical phase consist of collecting and preparing the data f or analysis.
The data obtained from the respondents are stored in computers as word
files or excel spread sheets. This has the advantage of making necessary
corrections or editing the whole layout of the tables if needed, which is
impossible or time consum ing incase, of writing in papers. Thus,
computers help in data entry, data editing, data management including
follow up actions etc. Computers also allow for greater flexibility in
recording the data while they are collected as well as greater ease during
the analysis of these data. In research studies, the preparation and
inputting data is the most labor -intensive and time -consuming aspect of
the work. Typically, the data will be initially recorded on a questionnaire
or record form suitable for its accepta nce by the computer. To do this the
researcher in conjunction with the statistician and the programmer, will
convert the data into Microsoft word file or excel spreadsheet. These
spreadsheets can be directly opened with statistical software for analysis.
D. ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN DATA ANALYSIS:
This phase consists of statistical analysis of the data and interpretation of
results. Many software are now available to perform the ‘mathematical
part of the research process i.e. the calculations using various sta tistical
methods. The software like SPSS, Stata, JMP, SAS etc are freely available
to analyse the data for different statistical techniques.
E. ROLE OF COMPUTERS IN RESEARCH DISSEMINATION:
This phase is the publication of the research study. It helps the researcher
to compile the data and put it into one format and book so that a complete
thesis can be formed. The research article is typed in word format and
converted top or table data format (PDF) and stored and/or published in
the World Wide Web.
To con clude, computers are useful tools that make the research process
easier and faster with accuracy and greater reliability and fewer errors.
The programmer or the computer operator should have a thorough
knowledge about the abilities and limitations of the s oftware used for
better use of computers.
7.5 SUMMARY
The statistics vary based on whether the study is a between -participants or
correlated -groups design. It is imperative that the appropriate statistic be
used to analyze the data collected in an experime nt. The methodology has
changed drastically over a period of time and thus this unit consists of
modern techniques adopted to make a research project more genuine and
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82 7.6 QUESTIONS
A. Test your knowledge by choosing the correct option:
1. …………….is a statistic that measures the degree to which two
variables move in relation to each other. (mean deviation , Correlation ,
standard deviation, Regression)
2. The …………..coefficient's values range between -1.0 and 1.0. (Mean
deviation , Corre lation , standard deviation, Regression)
3. A perfect positive correlation means that the correlation coefficient is
exactly…. ( 1, -1, 0, -0.5)
4. When price of a commodity increases its demand goes down or vice -
versa, its ………. correlation (Positive, Neg ative, Partial, Multiple)
5. Which method is a diagrammatic representation of a bivariate
distribution for ascertaining the nature of correlation between the
variables? (Scatter diagram, Regression lines, mean deviation, standard
deviation)
(Answers : 1. Correlation, 2. Correlation, 3. 1, 4. Negative, 5. Scatter,)
B. Short Answer Questions:
1. Explain the concept correlation
2. Elaborate the types of correlation.
3. Explain the different shapes of Scatter diagram
4. Define line of regression
5. Which are the Properties of Regression coefficients?
6. Explain the level of significance.
7. Explain the role of computers in research.
7.7 REFERENCES
1. Sherri L. Jackson, (2009) , Research Methods and Statistics, A Critical
Thinking Approach, ISBN -13: 978 -0-495-51001 -7
2. BASIC ECONOMETRICS,(2003) Damodar N. Gujarati, McGraw -
Hill Higher Education ISBN: 978 -0-07-233542 -2
3. Sachdeva J.K.(2011). Business Research Methodology. New Delhi:
Himalaya Publishing House.
4. Michael V.P.(1997). Research Methodology in Management. Del hi:
Himalaya Publishing House
❖❖❖❖
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83 MODULE IV
8
INTERPRETATION AND REPORT
WRITING

Unit structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Interpretation of Data
8.2 Introduction of Research Report
8.3 Structure of the Research Report
8.4 References and Citation Methods
8.5 References in Research Report
8.6 Fo otnotes in Research Report
8.7 Bibliography in Research Report
8.8 Summary
8.9 Questions
8.10 references
8.0 OBJECTIVES
 To understand essentials of research report writing.
 To study different structures and layout used for report writing.
 To differenti ate between footnote and bibliography.
 To know different styles of references and citation methods.
8.1 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
8.1.1 Meaning
Data interpretation is the process of reviewing data through some
predefined processes which will help assign some meaning to the data and
arrive at a relevant conclusion. It involves taking the result of data
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84 manipulating, and summarizing data to obtain answers to research
questions. It is usually the first step taken towards data interpretation.
It is evident that the interpretation of data is very important, and as such
needs to be done properly. Therefore, researchers have identified some
data interpretation methods to aid this process.
8.1.2 Signif icance of Data interpretation
The purpose of collection and interpretation is to acquire useful and usable
information and to make the most informed decisions possible. From
businesses, to newlyweds researching their first home, data collection and
interp retation provides limitless benefits for a wide range of institutions
and individuals.
I. It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand
the abstract principle that works beneath his findings. Through this
he can link up his findings w ith those of other studies, having the
same abstract principle, and thereby can predict about the concrete
world of events. Fresh inquiries can test these predictions later on.
This way the continuity in research can be maintained.
II. Interpretation leads t o the establishment of explanatory concepts
that can serve as a guide for future research studies; it opens new
avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for more
knowledge.
III. Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation wh y
his findings are what they are and can make others to understand
the real significance of his research findings.
IV. The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study
often results into hypotheses for experimental research and as such
interp retation is involved in the transition from exploratory to
experimental research. Since an exploratory study does not have a
hypothesis to start with, the findings of such a study have to be
interpreted on a post-factum basis in which case the interpretati on
is technically described as ‘post factum’ interpretation.
8.1.3 Data Interpretation Methods
Data interpretation methods are how analysts help people make sense of
numerical data that has been collected, analyzed and presented. Data,
when collected in ra w form, may be difficult for the layman to understand,
which is why analysts need to break down the information gathered so that
others can make sense of it.
There are two main methods in which this can be done, namely;
quantitative methods and qualitativ e methods.
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85 The qualitative data interpretation method is used to analyse qualitative
data, which is also known as categorical data. This method uses texts,
rather than numbers or patterns to describe data.
Qualita tive data is usually gathered using a wide variety of person -
toperson techniques, which may be difficult to analyze compared to the
quantitative research method. Unlike the quantitative data which can be
analyzed directly after it has been collected and so rted, qualitative data
needs to first be coded into numbers before it can be analyzed. This is
because texts are usually cumbersome, and will take more time and result
in a lot of errors if analyzed in its original state. Coding done by the
analyst should also be documented so that it can be reused by others and
also analyzed.
There are two main types of qualitative data, namely; nominal and ordinal
data. These two data types are both interpreted using the same method, but
ordinal data interpretation is qui te easier than that of nominal data. In most
cases, ordinal data is usually labelled with numbers during the process of
data collection, and coding may not be required. This is different from
nominal data that still needs to be coded for proper interpretat ion.
2) Quantitative Data Interpretation Method
The quantitative data interpretation method is used to analyze quantitative
data, which is also known as numerical data. This data type contains
numbers and is therefore analyzed with the use of numbers and n ot texts.
Quantitative data are of two types namely; discrete and continuous data.
Continuous data is further divided into interval data and ratio data, with all
the data types being numeric. Due to its natural existence as a number,
analysts do not need t o employ the coding technique on quantitative data
before it is analyzed. The process of analyzing quantitative data involves
statistical modelling techniques such as standard deviation, mean and
median.
8.1.4 Precautions in Data interpretation
It must be always remember that even if the data are properly collected
and analyzed, wrong interpretation would lead to inaccurate conclusions.
It is, therefore, absolutely essential that the task of, interpretation be
accomplished with patience in an impartial mann er and also in correct
perspective. Following precautions need to be taken in data interpretation.
i. Identify the Required Data Type
Researchers need to identify the type of data required for particular
research. It may be nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio data . The key to
collecting the required data to conduct research is to properly understand
the research question. If the researcher can understand the research
questio n, then he can identify the kind of data that is required to carry out
the research.
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86 ii. Avoid Biases
There are different kinds of biases a researcher might encounter when
collecting data for analysis. Although biases sometimes come from the
researcher, most o f the biases encountered during the data collection
process is caused by the respondent.
There are two main biases, namely, response bias and non -response bias .
Researchers may not be abl e to eliminate these biases, but there are ways
in which they can be avoided and reduced to a minimum. Response biases
are biases that are caused by respondents intentionally giving wrong
answers to responses, while non -response bias occurs when the
respon dents don't give answers to questions at all. Biases are capable of
affecting the process of data interpretation .
iii. Use Close Ended Surveys
Although open -ended surveys are capable of giving detailed information
about the questions and allow respondents to fully express themselves, it is
not the best kind of survey for data interpretation. It requires a lot of
coding before the data can be analyzed.
Close -ended surveys , on the other hand, restrict the respondents' answer to
some predefined options, while simultaneously eliminating irrelevant
data. This way, researchers c an easily analyze and interpret data.
However, close -ended surveys may not be applicable in some cases, like
when collecting respondent's personal information like name, credit card
details, phone number, etc.
iv. Researcher must invariably satisfy himself tha t (a) the data are
appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences; (b) the
data reflect good homogeneity; and that (c) proper analysis has been
done through statistical methods.
iv. The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can po ssibly
arise in the process of interpreting results.
8.2 INTRODUCTION OF RESEARCH REPORT
8.2.1 Meaning
The research work is presented in a written form. The practical utility of
research study depends heavily on the way it is presented to those who are
expected to act on the basis of research findings. Research report is a
written document containing key aspects of research project. Research
report is a medium to communicate research work with relevant people. It
is also a good source of preservation of res earch work for the future
reference. Many times, research findings are not followed because of
improper presentation. Preparation of research report is not an easy task. It
is an art. It requires a good deal of knowledge, imagination, experience,
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87 A research report is a document prepared by an analyst or strategist who is
a part of the investment research team in a stock brokerage or investment
bank. A research report may focus on a specific stock or i ndustry sector, a
currency, commodity or fixed -income instrument, or on ageographic
region or country. Research reports generally, but not always, have
actionable recommendations such as investment ideas that investors can
act upon.
8.2.2 Essentials of res earch report:
Report writing differs from person to person depending on personality,
imaginative and creative abilities, experience, and training. However, most
researchers agree that following general principles must be kept in mind to
produce a better r esearch report. These principles are often called as
qualities or requirements of a good report.
1. Accuracy: The information collected and presented by the researcher
must be accurate to the best of his knowledge. Wherever, possible the
sources of data can b e mentioned to make report more authentic. The
consistency must be maintained while writing report it includes the data,
language and also the presentation.
2. Concise: The research report must be concise, brief and straight to the
point. Irrelevant topics c an be avoided. There is no minimum or maximum
limit of pages that report should consist. Hence, a researcher can stick to
the research topic and cover the pointers related to that.
3. Logical arrangement : As such there is no standard format to be
followed f or writing a research project yet, researcher needs to take care
that there is a proper flow and logical connectivity among chapters. E .g:
Conclusions and suggestions of the study will follow only after the
analysis and interpretation of the data.
4. Date and signature: These two are the important elements of the
research report and therefore its existence in research report makes the
report more concrete. It also helps new researchers to know the period of
the study. The signatures of officials and researcher s makes the report
more reliable.
5. Impersonal style of writing: The researcher needs to write a research
report in “third form” i.e. without using the words like I, me, you, we etc.
The language used must be decent and official. Informal words,
expressions must be avoided. No need to use sophisticated language even
a simple language can serve the purpose of communicating research
outcomes to readers.
6. Timely submission of report: For every research report a particular
time frame is allotted and researcher mu st stick to that time. It requires
proper planning and allocation of work so that the research repot can be
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88 7. References: This is the most important section of research report. The
researcher refers several research works, b ooks, research papers etc . and
researcher may take some content from same, hence, the credit must be
given to all those authors and publishers. Thus, references must be
mentioned at the end of the research project.
8. Attractive presentation: If research rep ort contains only text and
data, the reader will not be interested to read in detail. Hence, wherever
possible, data must be converted in colourful charts and pointers or
variables can be put forward in the form of diagrams. It will attract the
attention o f readers.
8.2.3 Significance of research report:
1. Decision Making Tool: Today’s complex business organizations
require thousands of information. Â reports provide the required
information a large number of important decisions in business or any other
area are taken on the basis of information presented in the reports. This is
one of the great importance of report.
2. Transmission of knowledge : The knowledge that has been obtained on
the basis of research need transmission for proper utilization of the
resources invested. Because of that reason, it is always advisable to
prepare to report in a written manner so that it can also provide knowledge
to layman in understanding various social problems.
3. Investigation: Whenever there is any problem, a committee or
commission or study group investigates the problem to find out the reason
behind the problem and present the findings with or without the
recommendation in the form of a report.
4. Inspiration for Further Research: Research report inspires others to
undertake further research in the same line or in any other inter -
disciplinary fields. If the report appears to be interesting and a novel one,
it is more likely to draw the attention of the social scientists.
5. Evaluation: Large scale organizations are engaged in mu ltidimensional
activities. It is not possible for a single top executive to keep personal
watch on what others are doing.
So, the executive depends on reports to evaluate the performance of
various departments or units.
6. Development of skill: Report writing skill develops the power of
designing, organization coordination, judgment and communication.
7. Presentation of finding: Society is more concerned with the finished
product in terms of output of research which has the input of immense
money, human resources and precious time. Therefore, the social utility of
the research report lies in its exposure to the layman as well as submission
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89 8. Professional Advancement: Report also plays a major role in
professional achievement. For promotion to the rank -and-file position,
satisfactory job performance is enough to help a person. But for promotion
to high level position, intellectual ability is highly required. Such ability
can be expressed through the report submitted to higher authority.
9. A ma nagerial Tool: Various reports make activities easy for the
managers. For planning, organizing, coordinating, motivating and
controlling, manager needs help from a report which acts as a source of
information.
10. Encountering Advance and Complex Situation : In a large business
organization, there is always some sort of labor problems which may bring
complex situations. To tackle that situation, managers take the help of a
report.
8.3 STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH REPORT:
8.3.1 Meaning
Research reports are rec orded data prepared by researchers or statisticians
after analyzing information gathered by conducting organized research. A
research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted
research and is most often considered to be a true testim ony of all the
work done to gather details of research.
Researchers can prepare report at their ease as there are no such set rules
or procedure of writing reports. However, following general guidelines
can help for writing research reports:
8.3.2 Prelimin ary content:
1. A certificate stating the details of university/institution where the
research project is to be submitted. The certificate must be duly signed by
researches and research guide.
2. Acknowledgement: Researcher should take this as an opportun ity to
thank all those people who have helped to conduct the research work
successfully. Eg: Statistician for statistical help, respondents for filling up
the forms, etc.
3. Table of content : It is also known as an Index. This will help the reader
to trac e the content on the given page number.
4. List of tables and graphs : Tables and graphs are part of every research
and thus a separate index can be prepared mentioning the table and chart
displayed on a particular page.
5. Abbreviations: There are certai n words which are used repetitively in
the report and thus, an abbreviation can be used instead of writing a
complete word. The list of abbreviations used by researcher must be given
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90 8.3.3 Body o f the report:
Chapter 1 – Introduction
This is the first chapter of the research work, wherein the reader is
introduced to the basis of the research topic. The reader gets an idea about
the complete work from this chapter.
This chapter may consist of foll owing points:
 Objectives of the study
 Significance of the study
 Scope of the study
 Limitations of the study
 Origin of the study
 Chapter scheme of the research
Chapter 2 - Review of literature:
This chapter consists of a brief summary framed by researcher about the
past research or studies done by other researchers. It may include research
done at national or international level as well. This chapter will help the
reader to know the past contributions made by similar researchers.
Chapter 3 – Research metho dology
In this chapter, a complete process and research tools are used in research
is been highlighted. It includes:
 Hypotheses of the research work.
 A brief report on pilot study
 Reliability check of questionnaire
 Conceptual framework, if relevant to th e topic
 Research design
 Population and Sample size
 Techniques used for data analysis in research process.
 Description of questionnaire.
Chapter IV – Core concept/ Population of the research
This chapter includes a complete information about a core concep t
selected by the researcher to conduct research. E .g: Research topic: A
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91 chapter can be framed on Stress (Core concept) and another chapter can be
framed on Youth (Population). The chapter may include:
 Meaning of stress
 Causes of stress
 Impact of stress
 Symptoms of stress
 Theory put forward by earlier researchers.
Chapter V – Findings and observations
This chapter is the heart of the research project as it consists of a
compilati on of data collected by researcher. The data is presented in a
form of tables and charts as it becomes easy for a stranger to relate it to the
topic. Wherever, required justification and interpretation of the presented
data must be given. Researcher can al so write their observation that they
come across while interacting with respondents. This chapter also gives
the explanation for the hypothesis and objectives framed by the
researcher.
Chapter VI – Conclusion and suggestions
The complete research process is undertaken to come up with this chapter.
In this chapter, researcher gives suggestions based on analysis and data
collected by the researcher. A concrete conclusion to sum up the topic
must also be framed in this chapter. Researchers can link their sugg estion
with theories or they can come up with their own model in the form of
suggestion.
Chapter VII – Road ahead
This is the last chapter of the project, wherein, researcher chalks out the
area which is not covered and there is a scope for future research ers to do
in depth study. This chapter is very brief and concise in nature.
8.3.4 Supplementary material
This section includes all those extra documents used for conducting
research must be attached and described. It includes following
documents:
a. Ques tionnaire:
Every researcher uses a questionnaire to collect primary data from
respondent. A copy of questionnaire must be attached. If the
questionnaire, is translated in different language then questionnaire in both
the languages must be attached.

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92 b. Letters:
If the researcher has received any letters from companies or respondent,
the same must be attached at the end of the report. If researcher has
submitted any letters for the process of data collection, same can be
attached at the end.
c. Report o f plagiarism check:
Now -a- days plagiarism check is must and therefore, every researcher
needs to attach a plagiarism certificate, stating the content is authentic and
first hand. Many software are available, researcher can have a plagiarism
check and get the certificate.
8.3.5 References/ Bibliography:
All those books, research papers, sites, newspapers referred by researcher
needs to be mentioned under this heading. All these references must be
mentioned in different categories in alphabetical manner. It becomes a
huge source of references for new researchers to refer.
8.3.6 Images:
Although, this section is optional but, if research demands images, those
can be included under this section with proper heading and brief
description. It can make the re search more interesting and attractive.
8.4 REFERENCES AND CITATION METHODS:
8.4.1 Meaning:
A citation is a way of giving credit to individuals for their creative and
intellectual works that is been utilized by a researcher for the work. It can
also be u sed to locate particular sources and combat plagiarism. Typically,
a citation can include the author's name and date. A citation style dictates
the information necessary for a citation and how the information is
ordered, as well as punctuation and other fo rmatting. A citation tells the
readers where the information came from.
The citation can be maintained in three forms, they are as under:
a. The name -and-year system
Citations: When researcher cite the source of information in the report,the
names of the authors and the date of publication is mentioned.
Jenkins and Busher (1979) report that beavers eat several kinds of
herbaceous plants as well as the leaves, twigs, and bark of most species of
woody plants that grow near water.
Beavers have been shown to b e discriminate eaters of hardwoods
(Crawford, Hooper, and Harlow 1976).
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93 b. The alphabet -number system.
Citations: When researcher cite the source of information in the report, a
number in parentheses are given that corresponds to the number of the
source in the alphabetical listing in the "References."
Jenkins and Busher report that beavers eat several kinds of herbaceous
plants as well as the leaves, twigs, and bark of most species of woody
plants that grow near water (4).
Beavers have been shown to be d iscriminate eaters of hardwoods (3).
8.4.2 The Citation -Order System (typically used in engineering --IEEE
documentation).
Citations: When researcher cite the sources of information in the report, a
given number in brackets that corresponds to the number of the source
listed in the order in which they appear in the report, the source listed first
as [1], the next source [2], etc.
Jenkins and Busher report that beavers eat several kinds of herbaceous
plants as well as the leaves, twigs, and bark of most speci es of woody
plants that grow near water [1].
Beavers have been shown to be discriminate eaters of hardwoods [2].



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94 8.5 REFERENCES IN RESEARCH REPORT
8.5.1 Meaning
A reference gives the readers details about the source so that they have a
good understand ing of what kind of source it is and could find the source
themselves if necessary. The references are typically listed at the end of
the research report.
8.5.2 APA style:
APA is the style of documentation of sources used by the American
Psychological Ass ociation. This form of writing research papers is used
mainly in the social sciences, like psychology, anthropology, sociology, as
well as education and other fields.
Material
Type In-text
Citation Bibliography
A book (Sapolsky,
2017) Sapolsky, R. M. (201 7). Behave: The
biology of humans at our best and worst .
Penguin Books.
Chapter in
an edited book
(If the chapter
is from an
authored
book, use the
book citation ) (Dillard,
2020) Dillard, J. P. (2020). Currents in the
study of persuasion. In M. B. Oliver, A.
A. Raney, & J. Bryant (Eds.), Media
effects: Advances in theory and
research (4th ed., pp. 115 –129).
Routledge.
An article in a
print jo urnal (Weinstein,
2009) Weinstein, J. (2009). “The market in
Plato’s Republic.” Classical
Philology , 104(4), 439 -458.
An article in
an electronic
journal (Grady et
al., 2019) Grady, J. S., Her, M., Moreno, G., Perez,
C., &Yelinek, J. (2019). Emotions in
storybooks: A comparison of storybooks
that represent ethnic and racial groups in
the United States. Psychology of Popular
Media Culture , 8(3), 207 –
217. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm000018
5
A website (Bologna,
2019) Bologna, C. (2019, October 31). Why
some people with anxiety love watching
horror movies .
HuffPost. https://www.huffpost.com/entr
y/anxiety -love-watching -horror -
movies_l_5d277587e4b02a5a5d57b59e
Source: https://pitt.libguides.com/citation help/apa7 munotes.in

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95 8.5.3 Chicago style:
Chicago is a documentation style that has been published by the Chicago
University Press since 1906. This citation style incorporates rules of
grammar and punctuation common in American English. Typically,
Chicago style pres ents two basic documentation systems:
(1) Notes and bibliography
(2) Author -date.
Choosing between the two often depends on subject matter and the nature
of sources cited, as each system is favored by different groups of
scholars.The notes and bibliogra phy style is preferred by many in the
humanities, including those in literature, history, and the arts. This style
presents bibliographic information in notes and, often, a bibliography.
Material
Type Notes/Bibliography Style
A book in
print Note Style: 1. Michael Pollan, The Omnivore's
Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals (New
York: Penguin, 2006), 99 –100.
Duplicate Note: 2. Pollan, Omnivore's Dilemma, 3.
Bibliography: Pollan, Michael. The Omnivore's
Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals . New
York: Penguin, 2006.
An article in
a print
journal Note Style: 1. Joshua I. Weinstein, "The Market in
Plato’s Republic ," Classical Philology 104 (2009):
440.
Duplicate Note: 2. Weinstein, "Plato’s Republic ," 452 –
53.
Bibliography: Weinstein, Joshua I. "The M arket in
Plato’s Republic ." Classical Philology 104 (2009):
439–58.
An article in
an electronic
journal Note Style : 1. GueorgiKossinets and Duncan J. Watts,
“Origins of Homophily in an Evolving Social
Network,” American Journal of Sociology 115 (2009):
411, accessed February 28, 2010, doi:10.1086/599247.
Duplicate Note: Kossinets and Watts, “Origins of
Homophily,” 439.
Bibliography: Kossinets, Gueorgi, and Duncan J.
Watts. “Origins of Homophily in an Evolving Social
Network.” American Journal of Sociology 115 (2009):
405–50. Accessed February 28, 2010.
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96
A
website Note Style: 1.“Google Privacy Policy,” last modified March
11, 2009,
http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html.
Duplicate Note: “Google Privacy Policy.”
Bibliography: Google. “Google Privacy Policy.” Last
modified March 11, 2009.
http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacypolicy.html.
Source: https://pitt.libguides.com/citationhelp/chicago
The author -date style has long been used by those in the physical, natural,
and social sciences. In this system, sources are briefly cited in the text,
usually in parentheses, by author’s last name and date of publication. The
short citations are amplified in a list of references, where full bibliographic
information is provided.
Author/Date
Style In-text
Citation Bibliography
A book (Pollan
2006, 99 –
100) Pollan, Michael. 2006. The Omnivore’s
Dilemma: A Natural History of Four
Meals . New York: Penguin.
An article in
a print
journal (Weinstein
2009, 440) Weinstein, Joshua I. 2009. “The Market
in Plato’s Republic .” Classical
Philology 104:439 –58.
An article in
an electronic
journal (Kossinets
and Watts
2009, 411) Kossinets, Gueorgi, and Duncan J.
Watts. 2009. “Origins of Homophily in
an Evolving Social Network.” American
Journal of Sociology 115:405 –50.
Accessed February 28, 2010.
doi:10.1086/599247.
A website (Google
2009) Google. 2009. “Google Privacy Policy.”
Last modified March 11.
http://www.google.com/intl/en/privacyp
olicy.h tml.
Source: https://pitt.libguides.com/citationhelp/chicago
8.5.4 MLA Style:
MLA (Modern Language Association) style for documentation is widely
used in the humanities, especially in writing o n language and literature.
MLA style features brief parenthetical citations in the text keyed to an
alphabetical list of works cited that appears at the end of the work.

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97 Material Type Works Cited
Book in print Card, Claudia. The Atrocity Paradigm: A The ory of
Evil. Oxford UP, 2005.
eBook Gaither, Milton. Homeschool: An American
History. Palgrave Macmillan,
2017. SpringerLink , doi-
org.pitt.idm.oclc.org/10.1057/978 -1-349-95056 -0.
An article in a
print journal Doggart, Julia. "Minding the Gap: Realizing Our
Ideal Community Writing Assistance Program." The
Community Literacy Journal, vol. 2, no. 1, 2007,
pp. 71-80.
An article in an
electronic
journal Sherrard -Johnson, Cherene. "'A Plea for Color':
Nella Larsen's Iconography of the
Mulatta." American Lite rature , vol. 76, no. 4, 2004,
pp. 833 -869, doi: 10.1215/00029831 -76-4-833.
A
encyclopaedia
entry “Patanjali.” Benét’s Reader’s Encyclopedia , edited
by Bruce Murphy, 4th ed., HarperCollins
Publishers, 1996, p. 782.
A government
publication United States, Federal Maritime
Commission. Hawaiian Trade Study: An Economic
Analysis . Government Printing Office, 1978.
An interview
you conducted Brandt, Deborah. Personal interview. 28 May 2008.
(Note: List the interview under the name of the
interviewee)
A film/ DVD Note: This depends on the focus of your work.
Please see the MLA Style blog for a detailed
explanation.
A Page on
a Website with
no author "Stunning Lakeside View on Lake
Erie." VisitPA, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 7
June 2018, www.visitpa.com/article/stunning -
lakeside -views -lake-erie.
A Page on
a Website with
an author Del Castillo, Inigo. "How Not to Kill Your
Houseplants, According to Botanists." Apartment
Therapy, 29 Jan. 2020,
www.apartmenttherap y.com/houseplant -tips-
botanists -36710191.
Artwork - from
website Sherald, Amy. Former First Lady, Michelle Obama .
2018. National Portrait Gallery ,
npg.si.edu/object/npg_NPG.2018.15.
Source: https://pitt.libguides.com/citationhelp/mla8thedition munotes.in

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98 8.6 FOOTNOTES IN RESEARCH REPORT
8.6.1 Meaning
While preparing research report the materials, books, articles, published or
unpublished material etc . should be given proper acknowledgement by
way of footnotes and bibliography. Oxford Dictionary refers report as an
ascertained fact of record.
Footnotes are used to give the credit for borrowed words, ideas, symbols
or other forms of expression should be given and their sources should be
stated in the text or footnotes. Footnotes are of two kinds they are as
follows:
 Content notes
 Reference notes
The objectives of having footnotes in research project are as follows:
1. To acknowledge in the author of original work
2. To refer the source of information and t o establish the validity of
evidence.
3. To amplify or clarify the ideas or information presented in the text.
4. To give original version of material.
5. To provide cross reference to various parts of thesis.
The name and complete detail form where the informat ion and paragraph
has been taken is given in footnotes. If the information is on one single
page it could be preceded by “P”. If it is on two or more pages it could be
“PP”. Following format of footnotes must be followed:

Examples of footnotes are as fo llows:
A. Citing Book:
1. Mann, Social change and social research, New Delhi, concept
publishing company, 1988. P – 25.
2. Ibid, PP 20 – 24
B. Newspaper articles:
1. Kumar, Naresh, “Exploring sea for economic progress”, The
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99 2. Kamal Shal, “Effects of recession on corporate world”. The Times
of India (Mumbai), March 8, 2009.
C. Research papers:
1. Mr. Irshad. I and Bhat. Apresented and published the paper “The
vitality and role of Self Help Group (SHGS) in women upliftment: Spe cial
reference to Kashmir” in International Journal of Research –
Granthaalyah. Vol.3 Issue.8 in the year 2015.
D. Citing Thesis or dissertation:
1. Bangalore: Indian Institute of Science, 1986.
E. Publications of Government and public organisations:
1. World Bank, Ru ral development sector policy paper, Washington DC,
1975. P – 26.
F. Internet and websites:
https://mavimindia.org/
8.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY IN RESEARCH REPORT
8.7.1 Meaning
This is the first terminal item presented at the end o f the report. The
bibliography contains the list of books, articles, and magazines etc which
were referred by reporter while preparing research report. The list is
presented at the end of the report. The list must be in alphabetical order.
Hence, it become s easy to find and identify particular book or articles.
Alternatively, the list of names could be grouped like:

Bibliography is different from footnotes. Footnotes are placed at the end
of the page at the bottom. Whereas, on the other hand bibliography are
placed at the end of the report. In bibliography name of author is written
later and surname is written first. Eg: Drucker, Peter. E
The functions of bibliography are different from footnotes. Bibliography
gives the identification detail, as a whole. F ootnotes give the complete
detail about from where the information has been taken. Bibliography
does not displace exact place i.e. page number. A bibliography containing
less than 20 lines need not be subdivided into categories. They could be
written one b elow the:
A. Books:
1. Bulmer Martin, Sociological Research Methods, London, 1977,
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100 2. Brislin, Cross – Culture Research Methods, New York, John Wiley and
sons, 1973.
B. Reports
1. World Bank, World Development Report 1987, Washington.
2. United Nations, 1984.
3. UNCTAD, The least Development countries, 1984.
C. Journals
1. Das.D, Das.Band Mitra. S (2017). Impact of Women Participation
in SHGs for Their Empowerment and Livelihood in Belbari Block of West
Tripura District, Tripura, India. International Journal of Researc h in
Geography (IJRG). Volume 3, Issue 3. PP 60 -68.
2. Kamalanathan. K. (2016). Women empowerment and
microfinance – A study on Self Help Groups in Thane district of
Maharashtra. Scholarly Research Journal for Interdisciplinary Studies.
Vol 4.25. PP 2449 – 2457.

8.8 SUMMARY
This chapter highlights the process and essentials of compiling all the
research oriented data and putting it in the right order and making a
complete research report of it. The report can be divided into several parts
and that is expla ined in a process format in detailed manner. Writing a
research report is an art and thus every researcher needs to possess those
skills and techniques. The difference between Bibliography and
References has been explained as they play a vital role in ever y research
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101 reviewed by researchers and the same has been explained with suitable
examples.
8.9 QUESTIONS
Practice questions:
1. Explain the layout of research report in detail.
2. Briefly explain the essentials of research report.
3. Describe the importance of research report.
4. What is references? Explain different styles of references.
5. Elaborate the difference between footnote and bibliography with
suitable examples.
Fill in the blanks
1. Table of content is also known as ____________.
2. ___________________ consist of a brief summary framed by
researcher about the past research or studies done by other researchers.
3. Questionnaire is used to collect ______________ data from
responde nts.
4. A ___________is a way of giving credit to individuals for their
creative and intellectual works that is been utilized by a researcher for the
work.
Answers: 1. Index 2. Review of literature 3. Primary 4. Citation
True or False:
1. Footnote and Bibliog raphy are different. – True
2. Review of literature is based on secondary data – True
3. Chapter: Analysis and interpretation consist of tables and graphs
explaining primary data – True
4. Bibliography is always mentioned in the beginning of the report –
False




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102 8.10 REFERENCE S
1. C. R. Kothari. Research Methodology: Methods & techniques. 2nded.
2. P.S.S. Sunder Rao, J. Richard.Introduction to Biostatistics and Research
Methodology. 4thed.
 https ://labwrite.ncsu.edu/res/res -citsandrefs.html
 https://pitt.libguides.com/citationhelp/apa7
 https://www.slideshare.net/S hrutiMishra19/ppt -on-report -writing
 http://www.jiwaji.edu/pdf/ecourse/economics/Research%20Report.pdf

❖❖❖❖

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